The importance of stable ventilation

By Alan Creighton

Over the past 20 years the Irish Equine Centre has become world leaders in the design and control of the racehorse stable environment. At present we monitor the stable environment of approximately 180 racing yards across Europe.

The basis of our work is to improve biosecurity and the general environment in relation to stable and exercise areas within racing establishments. This is achieved by improving ventilation, yard layout, exercise areas and disinfection routines, in addition to testing of feed, fodder and bedding for quality and reviewing how and where they are stored.

Racehorses can spend up to 23 hours per day standing in their stable. The equine respiratory system is built for transferring large volumes of air in and out of the lungs during exercise. Racehorses are elite athletes, and best performance can only be achieved with optimal health. Given the demanding life of the equine athlete, a high number of racehorses are at risk of several different respiratory concerns. The importance of respiratory health greatly increases in line with the racehorse’s stamina. Therefore, as the distance a racehorse is asked to race increases so does the importance of ventilation and fresh clean air.

Pathogenic fungi and bacteria, when present in large numbers, can greatly affect the respiratory system of a horse and therefore performance. Airborne dust and pathogens, which can be present in any harvested food, bedding, damp storage areas and stables, are one of the main causes of RAO (Recurrent Airway Obstruction), EIPH (Exercise Induced Pulmonary Haemorrhage, also known as bleeding), IAD (irritable airway disease) and immune suppression. All of which can greatly affect the performance of the racehorse. Yards, which are contaminated with a pathogen of this kind, will suffer from the direct respiratory effect but will also suffer from recurring bouts of secondary bacterial and viral infections due to the immune suppression. Until the pathogen is found and removed, achieving consistency of performance is very difficult. Stable ventilation plays a huge part in the removal of these airborne pathogens.

What is ventilation?

The objective of ventilation is to provide a constant supply of fresh air to the horse. Ventilation is achieved by simply providing sufficient openings in the stable/building so that fresh air can enter and stale air will exit.

Ventilation involves two simple processes:

1. Air exchange where stale air is replaced with fresh air.

2. Air distribution where fresh air is available throughout the stable.

Good stable ventilation provides both of these processes. One without the other does not provide adequate ventilation. For example, it is not good enough to let fresh air into the stable through an open door at one end of the building if that fresh air is not distributed throughout the stable and not allowed to exit again. With stable ventilation we want cold air to enter the stable, be tempered by the hot air present, and then replace that hot air by thermal buoyancy. As the hot air leaves the stable, we want it to take moisture, dust, heat, pathogens and ammonia out as shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 2

It is important not to confuse ventilation with draft. We do not want cold air blowing directly at the horse who now has nowhere to shelter. Proper ventilation, is a combination of permanent and controllable ventilation. Permanent ventilation apart from the stable door should always be above the horse’s head. It is really important to have a ridge vent or cowl vent at the very highest point of the roof. Permanent ventilation should be a combination of air inlets above the horse’s head, which allows for intake of air no matter which direction the wind is coming from, coupled with an outlet in the highest point of the roof (shown in Figure 2). The ridge vent or cowl vent is an opening that allows warm and moist air, which accumulates near the roof peak to escape. The ridge opening is also a very effective mechanism for wind-driven air exchange since wind moves faster higher off the ground. The controllable ventilation such as the door, windows and louvers are at the horse height. With controllable ventilation you can open it up during hot spells or close it down during cold weather. The controllable ventilation should be practical and easy to operate as racing yards are very busy places with limited time. 

Where did the design go wrong?

The yards we work in are a mixture of historic older yards, yards built in the mid to late 20th century and yards built in the early 21st century. The level of ventilation present was extremely varied in a lot of these yards prior to working with the Irish Equine Centre. Interestingly the majority of the yards built before World War I displayed extremely efficient ventilation systems. Some of the oldest yards in the Curragh and Newmarket are still, to this day, considered well ventilated. 

In parts of mainland Europe including France the picture is very different. In general, the older yards in France are very poorly ventilated. The emphasis in the design of yards in parts of France appears to be more focused on keeping animals warm in the winter and cool during the summer. This is understandable as they do get colder winters and warmer summers in the Paris area, for example, when compared to the more temperate climate in Ireland and the UK. When these yards were built they didn’t have the quality of rugs available that we do now. Most of the yards in France are built in courtyard style with lofts above for storage and accommodation. When courtyard stables are poorly ventilated with no back or side wall air vents, you will always have the situation that the only boxes that get air exchange are the ones facing into the prevailing wind at that time. In this scenario, up to 60% of the yard may have no air exchange at all.

In the mid to late 20th century efficient ventilation design appears to have been overlooked completely. There appears to be no definitive reason for this phenomenon, with planning restrictions, site restrictions in towns like Newmarket and Chantilly, cheaper builds, or builders building to residential specifications all contributing to inadequate ventilation.

Barn and stable designers did not, and in a lot of cases still don’t, realize how much air exchange is needed for race horses. Many horse owners and architects of barns tend to follow residential housing patterns, placing more importance on aesthetics instead of what’s practical and healthy for the horse.

Many horses are being kept in suburban settings because their owners are unfamiliar with the benefits of ventilation on performance. Many of these horses spend long periods of time in their stalls, rather than in an open fresh-air environment that is conducive to maximum horse health. We measure stable ventilation in air changes per hour (ACH). This is calculated using the following simple equation:

Air changes per hour AC/H

N = 60 Q

         Vol

N = ACH (Air change/hour)

Where: Q = Velocity flow rate (wind x opening areas in cfm)

Vol = Length x Width x Average roof height.

Minimum air change per hour in a well-ventilated box is 6AC/H. We often measure the ACH in poorly ventilated stables and barns with results as low as 1AC/H; an example of such a stable environment is shown in Figure 3. When this measurement is as low as 1AC/H we know that the ventilation is not adequate. There will be dust and grime build up, in addition to moisture build up resulting in increased growth of mould and bacteria, and there will be ammonia build up. The horse, who can be stabled for up to 23 hours of the day, now has no choice but to breathe in poor quality air. Some horses such as sprinters may tolerate this, but in general it will lead to multiple respiratory issues…

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Colic - effects of inflammation

By Dr Zofia Lisowski, Prof. Scott Pirie & Dr Neil Hudson

Overview of colic

Colic is a term used to describe the display of abdominal pain in the horse. It is the most common emergency in horses with four to ten out of every 100 horses likely to experience at least one episode of colic each year. It is also the single most common cause of equine mortality. In the US, one study showed that thoroughbreds were more likely to develop colic1 than other breeds. It is of great welfare concern to horse owners, and with the estimated costs associated with colic in the US exceeding $115 million dollars per year2 and the average cost of a horse undergoing colic surgery that requires a resection in the UK being £6437.803, it is also a significant economic issue for horse owners. 

Horses with abdominal pain show a wide range of clinical signs, ranging from flank watching and pawing the ground in mild cases, to rolling and being unable to remain standing for any significant period of time in more severe cases. There are numerous (over 50) specific causes of colic. In general, colic occurs as a result of disruption to the normal function of the gastrointestinal tract. This may be attributable to mechanical causes such as an obstruction (constipation), distension (excess gas) or a volvulus (twisted gut). It may also have a functional cause, whereby the intestine doesn’t work as normal in the absence of an associated mechanical problem; for example, equine grass sickness is associated with a functional derangement of intestinal motility due to loss of nerves within the intestine. 

Management of colic depends on the cause and can necessitate either a medical or surgical approach. Most horses with colic will either improve spontaneously or with simple medical treatment alone; however, a significant proportion may need more intensive medical treatment or surgery. Fortunately, due to improvements in surgical techniques and post-operative management, outcomes of colic surgery have improved over the past few decades with up to 85% of horses surviving to discharge. Crucially for the equine thoroughbred racehorse population, several studies focussed on racehorses that had undergone colic surgery and survived to discharge, reporting that 63-73% returned to racing. Furthermore, surgical treatment did not appear to negatively impact athletic performance. A similar finding was also seen in the general sport horse population.

Despite significant advancement in colic surgery per se, complications following surgery can have a significant impact on post-operative survival and return to athletic function. Common post-operative complications include:

Complications at the site of the incision (surgical wound)

Infection: Infections at the site of the surgical incision are relatively common. Antibiotics are usually administered before surgery and after surgery. Infections are not normally severe but can increase treatment costs. Horses that develop infections are at greater risk of developing an incisional hernia.  

Hernia: Incisional hernias occur when the abdominal wall muscles fail to heal leaving a ‘gap’. Hernia size can vary from just a few centimetres, up to the full length of the incision. Most hernias will not require further treatment, but in more severe cases, further surgery may be required to repair the hernia.

Complications within the abdomen

Haemoperitoneum: A rare complication where there is blood within the abdomen from bleeding at the surgical site.

Anastomosis complications: The anastomosis site is where two opposing ends of intestine that have been opened are sutured back together again. It is important that at this site no leakage of intestinal contents occurs. Leakage or breakdown at this site can lead to peritonitis, which is inflammation or infection within the abdominal cavity and is a potentially life threatening complication. 

Adhesions: Scar tissue can form within the abdomen following abdominal surgery. Occasionally this may cause further colic episodes

Further colic episodes

Further colic episodes can occur following surgery. These can occur days to months following discharge.

Endotoxaemia

In some rare cases, horses may develop sepsis in response to toxins released by damaged intestine

Diarrhoea 

This is a rare complication. It can develop as a result of infections with C. difficile or Salmonella. As a consequence, some horses may need to be treated in isolation to ensure infection doesn’t spread to other horses or humans.

Post-operative ileus 

Post-operative ileus is one of the potential post-operative complications which can lead to a significant increase in hospital stay duration, increased treatment costs and is also associated with reduced survival rates. Post-operative ileus is a condition that affects the muscle function in the intestinal wall. The intestine is a long tube-like structure that has a muscular wall throughout its entire length from the oesophagus to the anus. The function of this muscle is to contract in waves to mix and move food along the length of the intestinal tract, within which digestion occurs and nutrients are absorbed, terminating in the excretion of waste material as faeces. In post-operative ileus these contractions stop and thus intestinal contents are not moved throughout the intestinal tract. In most cases, it is transient and lasts for up to 48 hours following surgery; however, in some cases it can last longer. A build-up of fluid develops within the intestine as a result of the lack of propulsion. This stretches the intestines and stomach, resulting in pain and the horse’s inability to eat. Unlike humans, the horse is unable to vomit; consequently, this excess fluid must be removed from the stomach by other means, otherwise there is a risk of the stomach rupturing with fatal consequences. Post-operative ileus may occur in up to 60% of horses undergoing abdominal surgery and mortality rates as high as 86% have been reported. Horses in which the small intestine manipulated is extensively manipulated during surgery and those that require removal of segments of intestine are at higher risk. Despite the significant risk of post-operative ileus following colic surgery in horses, there is a lack of studies investigating the mechanisms underpinning this condition in horses; consequently, the precise cause of this condition in horses is not fully known. 

What causes the intestine to stop functioning? 

For many years it was thought that post-operative ileus occurred as a result of a dysfunction of the nerves that stimulate contraction of the muscles in the intestinal wall. This theory has now mostly been superseded by the concept that it primarily results from inflammation in the intestinal wall. Based on human and rodent studies, it has been shown that immune cells in the intestine (macrophages) play a key role in development of this condition. Macrophages are important cells found everywhere in the body, with the largest population being in the intestine. These cells become activated by the inevitable manipulation of the horses’ intestines during colic surgery, with subsequent initiation of a sequence of events which ultimately results in dysfunction of the muscle in the intestinal wall. We know macrophages are present within the wall of the horses’ intestine and that at the time of colic surgery there is an inflammatory response at this site. Although the significance of these findings in relation to post-operative ileus in the horse remains unknown, they provide sufficient justification for ongoing research focused on the inflammatory response in the intestine of horses during and immediately following colic surgery…

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How technology can quantify the impact saddles have on performance

By Dr. Russell Mackechnie-Guire

Thanks to advances in technology, it is getting easier for scientists to study horses in a training environment. This, combined with recent saddlery developments in other disciplines, is leading to significant progress in the design and fit of exercise saddles.

Back pain, muscle tension and atrophy are common issues in yards. Although there are many contributory factors, the saddle is often blamed as a potential cause. Unlike other equestrian sports, where the effect of tack and equipment on the horse has been investigated, until now there has been little evidence quantifying the influence of exercise saddles.

New era

The technological advances used in sport horse research are sparking a new era in racing, enhancing our understanding of the physiological and biomechanical demands on the horse, and helping improve longevity and welfare. For the trainer this translates into evidence-based knowledge that will result in marginal or, in some cases, major gains in terms of a horse’s ability to race and achieve results. Race research has always been problematic, not least due to the speed at which the horse travels. Studies have previously been carried out in gait laboratories on treadmills, but this is not representative of normal terrain or movement. Thanks to new measuring techniques, we can now study the horse in motion on the gallops. Evidence of this new era arises from a recent study published in the Journal of Equine Veterinary Science. It found areas of high pressures under commonly used exercise saddles which had a negative influence on back function, affecting the horse’s gallop and consequently performance. 

The pressure’s on

Researchers used a combination of pressure mapping and gait analysis (see Technology in focus panel) to investigate three designs of commonly used exercise saddles: full tree, half tree and three-quarter tree. The aim was to identify pressure magnitude and distribution under each of the saddles then to establish whether the gait (gallop) was improved in a fourth saddle designed to remove these pressures. 

Areas of high pressure were found in the region of the 10th-13th thoracic vertebrae (T10-T13). Contrary to popular belief, none of the race exercise saddles tested in this study produced peak pressure on or around the scapula. The pressures around T10-T13 at gallop in the half, three-quarter and full tree were in excess of those detected during jumping or dressage in sport horses. They were also higher than pressures reported to be associated with clinical signs of back pain. Therefore, it is widely accepted that high pressures caused by the saddle could be a contributory factor to back pain in horses in training.  

Three most commonly used saddle-tree lengths, plus the new design (purple 40cm)

Half tree: High peak pressures in the region of T10-T14 were consistent with the end of the tree.

Three-quarter tree: Peak pressure was localised on one side of the back at a time, depending on the horse’s gallop lead.

Full tree: Peak pressure was further back and, although not high, gait analysis demonstrated a reduction in the extent to which the hindlimb comes under the horse, reducing the power in the stride.

New design: A more uniform pressure distribution, recording the lowest peak pressures at each location.

Lower pressure leads to longer strides

When looking at propulsion, there are two important measurements: the angle of the femur relative to the vertical and hip flexion. When pressures were reduced beneath the saddle, researchers saw an increased femur-to-vertical angle in the hindlimb and a smaller hip flexion angle (denoting the hip is more flexed).

A greater femur-to-vertical angle indicates that the hindlimb is being brought forward more as the horse gallops.

A smaller hip flexion angle denotes the hip is more flexed, allowing the horse to bring his quarters further under him and generate increased power.

Improved hip flexion was recorded in the new saddle design (A) compared to a commonly used saddle (B).

When pressure is reduced in the region of T13, the hindlimb is allowed to come more horizontally under the horse at this point in the stride, leading to an increase in stride length. Researchers speculate that this could be due to the fact that the thorax is better able to flex when pressure is reduced.

Perhaps surprisingly, the study found that reducing saddle pressures did not result in any significant alteration in the forelimb at gallop. The major differences were recorded in hindlimb function. This could be explained anatomically; the forelimb is viewed as a passive strut during locomotion, whereas the hindlimbs are responsible for force production.

This is consistent with findings in the sport horse world, where extensive research investigating pressures in the region of the 10th-13th thoracic vertebrae has shown that reducing saddle pressure is associated with improved gait features in both dressage and jumping. 

Speed matters…

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No guts, no glory!

By Catherine Rudenko

Can we increase the efficiency of the digestive system through dietary and supplementary manipulation in order to alter performance and recovery? 

The idiom ‘no guts, no glory’, when taken in the literal sense, is quite an appropriate thought for the racehorse. The equine gut is a collection of organs, which when in a state of disease, causes a multitude of problems; and when functioning effectively, it is key for conversion of food to fuel and maintaining normal health. 

In the same way we consider how fuel-efficient our car engines are, what power can be delivered and the influence of fuel quality on function, we can consider the horses’ digestive anatomy. The state of the ‘engine’ in the horse is critical to the output. What is fed or supplemented, and the manner in which we do so, has fascinating and somewhat frightening effects on efficiency and recovery. 

We now, in a human context, have a much better understanding of the relationship between the gut and states of disease. Before disease in a notable sense is present, we see loss of function and reduction in performance. With equines, in recent years, the focus has fallen toward ulceration and the stomach. Now interest is growing into the small and large intestines, looking at factors that influence their performance and in turn how this affects performance on the track. 

In order to consider how we can positively influence gut function, first we need to understand its design and capability, or lack of capability which is more often the problem. The horse, by definition, falls into the category of a large non ruminant herbivore—the same grouping as rhinoceroses, gorillas and elephants. The horse is well designed for a fibre-based diet, as reflected by the capacity of the large intestines, yet we must rely heavily on the small intestine when feeding racehorses. Health and function of both small and large intestines are important and are connected. 

Small Intestine 

The small intestine is a relatively short tube of approximately 25m in length—the same length as found in sheep or goats. The primary role of the small intestine is the digestion of protein, fats and carbohydrates. The workload of this organ is significant and is also time constrained, with feed typically moving at a rate of 30cm per minute (1). The rate of passage is highly influenced by whether the stomach was empty before feeding, or if forage has recently been consumed. The advice of feeding chaff with hard feed is in part to the slow rate of passage and give further time for the processes of digestion. 

The mechanisms for digestion in the small intestine include pancreatic juices, bile and enzymes. Of particular interest are the various enzymes responsible for digestion of protein and carbohydrates— the key nutrients often considered when choosing a racing diet. The ability to digest carbohydrate, namely starch, is dependent on two factors: firstly, form of starch and the level of alpha-amylase—a starch-digesting enzyme found in the small intestine. Whilst the horse is quite effective in digestion of protein, there are distinct limitations around digestion of starch. 

Starch digestion, or lack of digestion in the small intestine, is the area of interest. When feeding, the aim is to achieve maximum conversion of starch in the small intestine to simple sugars for absorption. This is beneficial in terms of providing a substrate readily available for use as an energy source and reducing the ill effects seen when undigested starch moves into the next section of the digestive tract. Alpha-amylase is found in very limited supply in the equine small intestine—the amount present being only approximately 5% of that found within a pig. Despite a low content, the horse can effectively digest certain cereal starches, namely oats, quite effectively without processing. However, other grains commonly used, (e.g., barley and maize [corn]), have poor digestibility unless processed. Flaked, pelleted or extruded cereals undergo a change in starch structure enabling the enzyme to operate more effectively. 

Processing grains whilst improving digestion does not alter the amount of enzyme present in the individual. An upper limit exists on starch intake, after which the system is simply overloaded and the workload is beyond the capacity of the naturally present enzymes. The level is estimated at 2g starch per kilogram of bodyweight in each meal fed. In practice, this translates to 3.5kg (7 ¾ lbs) of a traditional grain-based diet of 28% starch. In bowls, this is roughly 2 bowls of cubes or 2 ¼ bowls of mix—an intake typical of an evening feed. The ‘safe limit’ as a concept is questionable because of other factors involved in starch digestion, including how quickly a horse will eat their feed, dental issues and individual variation in the level of alpha-amylase present. 

In practice, feeding racehorses will invariably test the capacity of the small intestine as the volume of feed required to meet the demands of training is significant, and through time constraints of both horse and human results in a large-sized evening meal. The addition of amylase or other enzymes to the diet is therefore of interest. Addition of amylase is documented to increase digestion of maize (corn)—one of the most difficult grains to digest—from 47.3% to 57.5% in equines (2). Equally, wheat digestion has been evidenced to improve with a combination of beta-glucanase, alpha-amylase and xylanase in equines, increasing starch digestion from 95.1% to 99.3% (3).

Use of enzymes in the diet has two areas of benefit: increasing starch conversion and energy availability, and reducing the amount of undigested starch that reaches the hindgut. The efficacy of the small intestine directly impacts the health of the large intestine—both of which influence performance. 

Large Intestine 

The caecum and colon, of which there are four segments, form the group referred to as the hindgut. Their environment and function are entirely different to that of the small intestine. Here, digestion is all about bacterial fermentation of the fibrous structures found in forages and parts of grains and other feed materials. The time taken to digest foodstuffs is also significantly different to that of the small intestine, with an average retention time of 30 hours. 

The end result of fermentation is the production of fatty acids, namely acetate, butyrate and propionate—the other by-product of fermentation being lactate. The level of fatty acids and lactate produced is dependent on the profile of bacteria found within the gut, which in turn react to the type of carbohydrate reaching the hindgut. There are markedly different profiles for horses receiving a mostly fibre-based diet compared to those with a high-grain intake. 

The interaction between the microbial organisms and metabolism, which directly influences health and disease, is gaining greater understanding. By looking at the faecal metabolome, a set of small molecules that can be identified in faecal samples, and the categories of bacteria in the gut, it is possible to investigate the interaction between the individual horse, its diet and bacteria. Of course, the first challenge is to identify what is normal or rather what is typical of a healthy horse so that comparatives can be made. Such work in horses in training, actively racing at the time of the study, has been carried out in Newmarket. 

Microbiome is a term used to describe microorganisms, including bacteria, that are found within a specific environment. In the case of the horses in training, their microbiome was described before and after a period of dietary intervention. The study evidences the effect on the hindgut of including an enzyme supplement, ERME (Enzyme Rich Malt Extract). The table below shows changes in nine bacterial groups before and after supplementation. 

Along with changes in bacterial abundance, which were relatively small, came more significant changes within the metabolome. The small molecules found in the metabolome are primarily acids, alcohols and ketones. Of particular interest, and where statistical significance was found, were changes in acetic acid and propionic acid evidencing an effect on the digestive process. 

Whilst production of fatty acids is desired and a natural outcome of fermentation, further work is needed to determine what is an optimum level of fatty acid production. This study of horses in training is an interesting insight into an area of growing interest. 

Effects on Performance & Large Intestine Function…

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Conformation and Breeding Choices

By Judy Wardrope

A lot of factors go into the making of a good racehorse, but everything starts with the right genetic combinations; and when it comes to genetics, little is black and white. The best we can do is to increase our odds of producing or selecting a potential racehorse. Examining the functional aspects of the mare and then selecting a stallion that suits her is another tool in the breeding arsenal.

For this article we will use photos of four broodmares and analyze the mares’ conformational points with regard to performance as well as matings likely to result in good racehorses from each one. We will look at qualities we might want to cement and qualities we might hope to improve for their offspring. In addition, we will look at their produce records to see what has or has not worked in the past.

In order to provide a balance between consistency and randomness, only mares that were grey (the least common color at the sale) with three or more offspring that were likely to have had a chance to race (at least three years old) were selected. In other words, the mares were not hand-picked to prove any particular point. 

All race and produce information was taken from the sales catalogue at the time the photos were taken (November 2018) and have not been updated. 

Mare 1

Her lumbosacral gap (LS) (just in front of the high point of croup, and the equivalent of the horse’s transmission) is not ideal, but within athletic limits; however, it is an area one would hope to improve through stallion selection. One would want a stallion with proven athleticism and a history of siring good runners.

The rear triangle and stifle placement (just below sheath level if she were male) are those of a miler. A stallion with proven performance at between seven furlongs and a mile and an eighth would be preferable as it would be breeding like to like from a mechanical perspective rather than breeding a basketball star to a gymnast.

Her pillar of support emerges well in front of the withers for some lightness of the forehand but just behind the heel. One would look for a stallion with the bottom of the pillar emerging into the rear quarter of the hoof for improved soundness and longevity on the track. Her base of neck is well above her point of shoulder, adding additional lightness to the forehand, and she has ample room behind her elbow to maximise the range of motion of the forequarters. Although her humerus (elbow to point of shoulder) shows the length one would expect in order to match her rear stride, one would likely select a stallion with more rise from elbow to point of shoulder in order to add more lightness to the forehand.

Her sire was a champion sprinter as well as a successful sire, and her female family was that of stakes producers. She was a stakes-placed winner at six furlongs—a full-sister to a stakes winner at a mile as well as a half-sister to another stakes-winning miler. Her race career lasted from three to five.

She had four foals that met the criteria for selection; all by distance sires of the commercial variety. Two of her foals were unplaced and two were modest winners at the track. I strongly suspect that this mare’s produce record would have proven significantly better had she been bred to stallions that were sound milers or even sprinters.

Mare 2 

Her LS placement, while not terrible, could use improvement; so one would seek a stallion that was stronger in this area and tended to pass on that trait. 

The hindquarters are those of a sprinter, with the stifle protrusion being parallel to where the bottom of the sheath would be. It is the highest of all the mares used in this comparison, and therefore would suggest a sprinter stallion for mating.

Her forehand shows traits for lightness and soundness: pillar emerging well in front of the withers and into the rear quarter of the hoof, a high point of shoulder plus a high base of neck. She also exhibits freedom of the elbow. These traits one would want to duplicate when making a choice of stallions.

However, her length of humerus would dictate a longer stride of the forehand than that of the hindquarters. This means that the mare would compensate by dwelling in the air on the short (rear) side, which is why she hollows her back and has developed considerable muscle on the underside of her neck. One would hope to find a stallion that was well matched fore and aft in hopes he would even out the stride of the foal.

Her sire was a graded-stakes-placed winner and sire of stakes winners, but not a leading sire. Her dam produced eight winners and three stakes winners of restricted races, including this mare and her full sister. 

She raced from three to five and had produced three foals that met the criteria for this article. One (by a classic-distance racehorse and leading sire) was a winner in Japan, one (by a stallion of distance lineage) was unplaced, and one (by a sprinter sire with only two starts) was a non-graded stakes-winner. In essence, her best foal was the one that was the product of a type-to-type mating for distance, despite the mare having been bred to commercial sires in the other two instances.

Mare 3 ….

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Antimicrobial resistance

By Jennifer Davis and Celia Marr

Using antimicrobials as effectively as possible helps to reduce their use overall. For septic arthritis, intravenous regional perfusion of antimicrobials can achieve very high concentrations within a specific limb. This involves placing a temporary tourniquet to reduce blood flow away from the area while the antimicrobial is injected into a nearby blood vessels. The technique is suitable for some but not all antimicrobial drugs.

Growing numbers of bacterial and viral infections are resistant to antimicrobial drugs, but no new classes of antibiotics have come on the market for more than 25 years. Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria cause at least 700,000 human deaths per year according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Equivalent figures for horses are not available, but where once equine vets would have very rarely encountered antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, in recent years this serious problem is a weekly, if not daily, challenge. 

The WHO has for several years now, designated a World Antibiotic Awareness Week each November and joining this effort, British Equine Veterinary Association and its Equine Veterinary Journal put together a group of articles exploring this problem in horses.

How do bacterial populations develop resistance?

Certain types of bacteria are naturally resistant to specific antimicrobials and susceptible to others. Bacteria can develop resistance to antimicrobials in three ways: bacteria, viruses and other microbes, which can develop resistance through genetic mutations or by one species acquiring resistance from another. Widespread antibiotic use has made more bacteria resistant through evolutionary pressure—the “survival of the fittest” principle means that every time antimicrobials are used, susceptible microbes may be killed; but there is a chance that a resistant strain survives the exposure and continues to live and expand. The more antimicrobials are used, the more pressure there is for resistance to develop.

The veterinary field remains a relatively minor contributor to the development of antimicrobial resistance. However, the risk of antimicrobial-resistant determinants travelling between bacteria, animals and humans through the food chain, direct contact and environmental contamination has made the issue of judicious antimicrobial use in the veterinary field important for safeguarding human health. Putting that aside, it is also critical for equine vets, owners and trainers to recognise we need to take action now to limit the increase of antimicrobials directly relevant to horse health.

How does antimicrobial resistance impact horse health?

This mare’s problems began with colic; she underwent surgery to correct a colon torsion (twisted gut). When the gut wall is damaged, bacteria easily spread throughout the body. The mare developed an infection in her surgical incision and in her jugular veins, progressing eventually to uncontrollable infection—resistant to all available antimicrobials with infection of the heart and lungs.

The most significant threat to both human and equine populations is multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli, MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecium, and rising MDR strains of Salmonella spp. and Clostridium difficile. In an analysis of 12,695 antibiograms collected from horses in France between 2012-2016, the highest proportion (22.5%) of MDR isolates were S. aureus. Identification of ESBL E.coli strains that are resistant to all available antimicrobial classes has increased markedly in horses. In a sampling of healthy adult horses at 41 premises in France in 2015, 44% of the horses shed MDR E.coli, and  29% of premises shedding ESBL isolates were found in one third of the equestrian premises. Resistant E. coli strains are also being found in post-surgical patients with increasing frequency.

Rhodococcus equi is a major cause of illness in young foals. It leads to pneumonia and lung abscesses, which in this example have spread through the entire lung. Research from Kentucky shows that antimicrobial resistance is increasingly common in this bacterial species.

Of major concern to stud owners, antimicrobial-resistant strains of Rhodococcus equi have been identified in Kentucky in the last decade, and this bacteria can cause devastating pneumonia in foals. Foals that are affected by the resistant strains are unlikely to survive the illness. One of the leading authorities on R equi pneumonia, Dr Monica Venner has published several studies showing that foals can recover from small pulmonary abscesses just as quickly without antibiotics, and has pioneered an ‘identify and monitor’ approach rather than ‘identify and treat’.  Venner encourages vets to use ultrasonography to quantify the infected areas within the lung and to use repeat scans, careful clinical monitoring and laboratory tests to monitor recovery. Antimicrobials are still used in foals, which are more severely affected, but this targeted approach helps minimise drug use.

What can we do to reduce the risk of antimicrobial resistance?

Faced with a coughing horse, trainers will often pressure their vet to administer antibiotics, hoping this will clear the problem up quickly. Many respiratory cases will recover without antibiotics, given rest and good ventilation.

The simple answer is stop using antimicrobials in most circumstances except where this is absolutely avoidable. In training yards, antimicrobials are being over-used for coughing horses. Many cases are due to viral infection, for which antibiotics will have little effect. There is also a tendency for trainers to reach for antibiotics rather than focusing on improving air quality and reducing exposure to dust. Many coughing horses will recover without antibiotics, given time. Although it has not yet been evaluated scientifically, adopting the ‘identify and monitor’ approach, which is very successful in younger foals, might well translate to horses in training in order to reduce overuse of antimicrobials.

Vets are also encouraged to choose antibiotics more carefully, using laboratory results to select the drug which will target specific bacteria most effectively. The World Health Organization has identified five classes of antimicrobials as being critically important, and therefore reserved, antimicrobials in human medicine. The critically important antimicrobials which are used in horses are the cephalosporins (e.g., ceftiofur) and quinolones (e.g., enrofloxacin), and the macrolides, which are mainly used in foals for Rhodococcal pneumonia. WHO and other policymakers and opinion leaders have been urging vets and animal owners to reduce their use of critically important antimicrobials for well over a decade now. Critically important antimicrobials should only be used where there is no alternative, where the disease being treated has serious consequences and where there is laboratory evidence to back up the selection. British Equine Veterinary Association has produced helpful guidelines and a toolkit, PROTECT-ME, to help equine vets achieve this.

How well are we addressing this problem?….

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Trainer Profile: Kevin Prendergast

By Lissa Oliver

“The best horses are the best bred”, says Kevin Prendergast; and he should know. Right now, he’s watching a potential champion walk quietly past. Madhmoon has yet to win this year, but having finished fourth in the 2000 Guineas and second in The Derby, a win isn’t likely to be long in coming. Prendergast trained his dam, Aaraas and grand dam Adaala, both winners, and a long list of their siblings and progeny, too. No less than My Charmer, dam of Seattle Slew, is the fifth dam of the Friarstown Stables star.

Much like Madhmoon, Prendergast, who will be 87 this July, can also boast an illustrious line. He has followed in the footsteps of his grandfather, Patrick, and father, the renowned Paddy ‘Darkie’ Prendergast; as have his brother Paddy Jr and nephew Patrick, the latter recently joining forces with John Oxx in a dual-venture new to Ireland.

Innovation was nothing new to ‘Darkie’, who pioneered trans-Atlantic travel for racehorses and remains to date the only Irish trainer to become Britain’s Champion Trainer three years in a row. “It will never be done again”, says Prendergast, who took out his own training licence in 1963—the year his father won the first of those titles. Up until then, Prendergast had been working with his father as assistant trainer.

“It was the logical thing”, he says now of his decision to go out on his own. “I had always wanted to be a trainer. It’s a labour of love more than a job. There are more ups than downs. The good days are great days, but at the same time the bad days are very bad.

“I don’t know if starting out on my own was made easier because of my family background or harder, because I’ve never had to do it without that background”!

He may have learned a lot from his father, but Prendergast also gained a wealth of experience during a five-year stint in Australia, where he ventured in 1949 as a 17-year-old. The connection had started much earlier, however, as it is where he was born while his father was riding there.

“I was assistant to Frank Dalton; he had a very successful stable at the time”, recalls Prendergast. Indeed, during his time with Dalton, some of the country’s top prizes fell their way, with horses such as Oversight and Barfleur. “I wouldn’t say the methods of training were any different out there”, he notes. “Methods are basically the same for everyone. But they were so far ahead. Even then, all the tracks were watered, whereas in Ireland they were building a facility at the Curragh and forgot about the water! There was no thought given to how they would get water onto the track.

“I left Frank Dalton to come back home again in 1954, to work with my father. I was riding as an amateur then, too. I was assistant to my father for eight years”.

There was no shortage of top-class horses in his care at Darkie’s, and in 1960 Martial became the first Irish-trained winner of the English 2000 Guineas, in the same year that the stable saddled Alcaeus and Kythnos to finish second and third in the Epsom Derby. Prendergast has gone on to have seven runners in the great race—Madhmoon going tantalisingly close this year.

Mahdmoon

Setting up on his own, Prendergast got off the mark quickly when Zara won at Phoenix Park in May 1963—the victory all the sweeter because he was also the winning jockey. He had bought Zara, described as “a bit of a monkey”, from his father; and it wasn’t long before he stepped out of Darkie’s shadow to establish himself as a Classic-winning trainer.

Like Zara, Pidget wasn’t easy to train, but Prendergast knew how to get the best from the filly, and she provided the first two of his eight Irish Classics, taking the Irish 1000 Guineas and Irish St Leger in 1972, as well as the Pretty Polly Stakes. The following year Conor Pass gave him a back-to-back Irish St Leger win, a feat Prendergast repeated in 1996 and 1997 with Oscar Schindler. In 1977, Nebbiolo provided him with an English Classic when landing the 2000 Guineas.

There are not too many trainers blessed with the skill and longevity to boast a 40-year gap between their first Irish 2000 Guineas winner and their most recent, but Northern Treasure (1976) and Awtaad (2016) are testament to Prendergast’s vast experience.

“There’s no secret to it, we all want the same thing”, he says of that skill. “Just keep them healthy and happy”. When Tell The Wind gave him his landmark 2,000th winner at Dundalk in 2010, it was as good a proof as any of a healthy happy stable.

Friarstown Stables are conducive to contentment. Just close enough to the bustle of the Curragh to avail of the world-class facilities on the doorstep, yet tucked quietly away from the main thoroughfare, providing a little slice of peace and tranquillity. Mature trees shelter the farm and its fields, and private grass and all-weather gallops nestle imperceptibly in pastureland, protected by natural hedgerow.

Natural is the operative word. This is a working stable with traditional boxes, well-maintained and tidy, certainly, but with no airs and graces. Functional, not showy. Prendergast is very much stamped upon his surroundings.

For a successful yard, he has always kept a relatively small string. He has 35 horses and a small team of staff, who go about their work with quiet efficiency. There are no shouts or raised voices, but lots of laughter. Even first lot, keen to stretch their legs and get out, match the calm mood. There’s no skittish behaviour, no wilful shows of temperament, and each of the nine horses walk by on a long rein, perfectly settled.

“He has a bit of temperament, which Awtaad never had”, Prendergast says of Madhmoon, who is in the first lot and on best behaviour. “I was never worried about him training on at three as we’d looked after him. It’s the busy two-year-olds you’d worry about. He does everything right and he’s a good horse to work—you can set your clock by him. I trained the dam and the grand dam; I’ve had all the family here. He’s never been away from here since he arrived at two and I see him every day.”

Methods might be the same the world over and he might not be one for new technology, but therein lies the secret to Prendergast’s success. Observing the individuals and retaining a familiarity with the families that go back several generations. Much of that is owed to the loyalty of owner breeders such as Lady O’Reilly and Sheikh Hamdan Al Maktoum, for whom Prendergast has trained for over 30 years.

“I’m very, very lucky to have good owners like Lady O’Reilly and Sheikh Hamdan”, Prendergast acknowledges. “They have been with me for a long time and so have my Irish owners. Unfortunately, Ireland is losing a marvellous owner because conditions in France are so much better. The prize money is good and then there are the bonuses; it’s hard for us to compete. We tried to get a Tote monopoly here—my father tried hard. Australia, France, New Zealand, America—they all have a thriving Tote.

“Trainers are getting run out of it. the €2,000 or €3,000 we’re running for doesn’t pay for the horsebox to get them there. Trainers are giving up in England every day. It’s all to do now with agents and how well a horse is bred; everybody wants black type, but at the other end there are not too many races for horses that cost €72,000 or less. It puts the smaller fella out of the game. They don’t look after the smaller trainer, and it’s the smaller trainers who are the backbone of the game. If you lose them, you may as well close the whole game down”.

He has seen many changes during his career and suspects some may be for the worse—too often a case of, “Common sense gone out the window”. He smiles at the idea of giving horses Guinness or eggs: “That’s something in the past. Nowadays you’d be afraid to give them spring water”. But there’s an edge to the joke.

Like many, he feels the IHRB is too quick to follow the BHA and the equine flu scare was a case in point. “We had immunised our horses at Christmas, and then we were forced to get them done again. It made them ill, and we lost the early part of the season”.

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An Introduction to the Functional Aspects of Conformation

By Judy Wardrope

Why is one horse a sprinter and another a stayer? Why is one sibling a star and another a disappointment? Why does one horse stay sound and another does not? Over the course of the next few issues, we will delve into the mechanics of the racehorse to discern the answer to these questions and others. We will be learning by example, and we will be using objective terminology as well as repeatable measures. This knowledge can be applied to the selection of racing prospects, to the consideration of distance or surface preferences and, of course, to mating choices.

Introducing a different way of looking at things requires some forethought. Questions need to be addressed in order to provide educational value for the audience. How does one organise the information, and how does one back up the information? In the case of equine functionality in racing, which horses will provide the best corroborative visuals?

Tiznow

Unknown horse

After considerable thought, these three horses were selected: Tiznow (Horse #1) twice won the Breeders’ Cup Classic (1¼ miles) ; Lady Eli (Horse #2) won the Juvenile Fillies Turf and was twice second in the Filly and Mare Turf (13/8 miles); while our third example (Horse #3) did not earn enough to pay his way on the track. Let’s see if we can explain the commonalities and the differences so that we can apply that knowledge in the future.

Factors for Athleticism

If we consider the horse’s hindquarters to be the motor, then we should consider the connection between hindquarters and body to be the horse’s transmission. Like in a vehicle, if the motor is strong, but the transmission is weak, the horse will either have to protect the transmission or damage it.

According to Dr. Hilary M. Clayton (BVMS, PhD, MRCVS), the hind limb rotates around the hip joint in the walk and trot and around the lumbosacral joint in the canter and gallop. “The lumbosacral joint is the only part of the vertebral column between the base of the neck and the tail that allows a significant amount of flexion [rounding] and extension [hollowing] of the back. At all the other vertebral joints, the amount of motion is much smaller. Moving the point of rotation from the hip joint to the lumbosacral joint increases the effective length of the hind limbs and, therefore, increases stride length.” From a functional perspective, that explains why a canter or gallop is loftier in the forehand than the walk or the trot.

In order to establish an objective measure, I use the lumbosacral (LS) gap, which is located just in front of the high point of the croup. This is where the articulation of the spine changes just in front of the sacrum, and it is where the majority of the up and down motion along the spine occurs. The closer a line drawn from the top point of one hip to the top point of the other hip comes to bisecting this palpable gap, the stronger the horse’s transmission. In other words, the stronger the horse’s coupling.

Tiznow

Lady Eli

Unknown horse

We can see that the first two horses have an LS gap (just in front of the high point of the croup as indicated) that is essentially in line with a line drawn from the top of one hip to the top of the opposing hip. This gives them the ability to transfer their power both upward (lifting of the forehand) and forward (allowing for full extension of the forehand and the hindquarters). Horse #3 shows an LS gap considerably rearward of the top of his hip, making him less able to transfer his power and setting him up for a sore back.

You may also notice that all three of these sample horses display an ilium side (point of hip to point of buttock), which is the same length as the femur side (point of buttock to stifle protrusion)—meaning that they produce similar types of power from the rear spring as it coils and releases when in stride. We can examine the variances in these measures in more detail in future articles, when we start to delve into various ranges of motion as well as other factors for soundness or injury.

Factors for Distance Preferences…

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Equine Pain: how can we recognise it and which painkiller should we use?

By Professor Celia Marr

We can all agree that alleviating pain in our patients is an important goal, but we may not be as good as we might hope at recognising pain in horses. Studies have shown that there is considerable variation in the scores vets assign when asked to predict how much pain they expect to see with specific clinical conditions.

Acute severe pain is perhaps most easily recognised by horsemen and vets; signs of severe colic, such as rolling, are usually very obvious. Low-grade pain, and pain not associated with abdominal disease can be more difficult to detect and go unrecognised. In particular, intra-thoracic pain and pain associated with injuries to the thoracic cage, withers and spine can be difficult to pinpoint.

This horse is clearly showing signs of abdominal pain—colic. It is lying down, has been rolling and is looking at its flank.

Comfortable horses interact with their environment, look out over their stable door and eat willingly. Reluctance to move and restlessness indicate pain while looking at the flank, and kicking at the abdomen all suggest localised pain. Behaviours such as lifting hindlimbs, extending head, lateral and/or vertical head movements and pawing are also observed in uncomfortable horses.

Facial expression and pain

In humans, facial expressions are an important part of nonverbal communication. The Horse Grimace Scale has been developed to help identify subtle pain in horses. The grimace scale is easy to learn, can be applied quickly and takes into account our natural human tendency to focus on the face when evaluating both human and non-humans around us. This scale looks at ear position, tension around the eyes, tension in the chewing muscles and shape of the nostrils which tend to be held in a strained position if in pain. More complex pain scales incorporate facial expression with head position, flehmen, yawning, teeth grinding and interaction with people.

It might be easy to dismiss this individual as sour, but its ear position and low head carriage are due to chronic pain.

An anxious expression in the eyes can be an important sign of chronic pain.

These scales were used in a recent Equine Veterinary Journal article looking at optimal methods to provide anaesthesia for castration. But, the focus on a strained facial expression, ears held back and lack of interaction with people can easily be misinterpreted as poor temperament. It is well worth trainers taking time to make sure their staff are educated on how to recognise signs of pain, as these sorts of clinical signs might indicate important conditions such as gastric ulcers, pneumonia or even musculoskeletal conditions such as fractured ribs. Yard staff should be encouraged to give horses the benefit of the doubt and report any apparent poor temperament so that veterinary investigations can be undertaken to get to the bottom of the problem. Similarly, these signs can be used to monitor horses after potentially painful procedures such as following surgery or castration.

What do we know about analgesic use in equine practice?

There is an increasingly large number of painkillers, also known as analgesics, which are either licensed for use in the horse or supported by research evidence. But it is likely that most equine vets use a relatively small range. British Equine Veterinary Association (BEVA) has recently tasked a team of its members to look at the evidence with underpin best practice for selections of analgesics in common clinical scenarios. This group is chaired by Professor Mark Bowen of the University of Nottingham and has been working for two years now and has collected evidence from the veterinary literature; and in parallel the group has consulted BEVA members to develop robust recommendations. The BEVA Clinical Practice Guidelines report on analgesia will be published soon and looks at the most effective analgesia in horses undergoing routine castration, horses with acute colic, orthopaedic pain and in horses with chronic pain that does not respond to standard non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as phenylbutazone (aka “Bute”). In making their recommendations around use of analgesics in horses, the BEVA team considered both the effectiveness of each analgesic drug, its safety and potential for side-effects.

What are the desirable characteristics of analgesic drugs?

The ideal analgesic has predictable effect and duration, minimal side effects and is easy to prescribe, purchase and administer, lacking any impact on the horse’s future status for human consumption. Of course, the ideal analgesic does not exist. To a large extent, the most appropriate analgesic will be dictated by the specific clinical indication.

Analgesia in colic

With colic, predictable level of analgesia and duration of action are key characteristics. The BEVA team found moderate evidence that flunixin provides superior analgesia to meloxicam and phenylbutazone in horses with colic. However, effective analgesia is desirable but very potent drugs are usually avoided for fear of masking declining clinical status in a horse which would be best served by surgical exploration rather than controlled with extremely potent analgesics. Potential damage to the gastrointestinal tract and effects on gastrointestinal motility are critical and the impact of concurrent shock and volume depletion must be considered. Similar considerations come into play with peri-operative pain but here, the level of analgesia required may be modified by the exact surgical indication and specific procedure and with some procedures, it will be appropriate to provide very potent analgesia, for example with surgical repair of fractures or other painful orthopaedic surgeries. In these cases, multimodal analgesia may well be indicated.

Analgesia following castration

The BEVA team found robust evidence to support a recommendation that pre-operative NSAIDs should be administered prior to surgery. They also recommended that analgesia should be given for at least three days after surgery and that local anaesthetic should be infused into the testicle even when a general anaesthetic is administered. Finally, they counselled that pre-operative use of butorphanol (a commonly used component of sedative protocols) alone should not be considered adequate analgesia for horses undergoing castration.

Selection of NSAIDs for musculoskeletal pain

There is moderate evidence to indicate that phenylbutazone provides superior analgesia for hoof pain / laminitis, compared to firocoxib and meloxicam but strong evidence to show that Suxibuzone can be used as a direct replacement for phenylbutazone in chronic orthopaedic pain. The evidence supporting the use of other NSAIDs is less definitive. Meloxicam and firocoxib may be equivalent to phenylbutazone for pain associated with inflammation of the joint lining and, although studies are not conclusive, the group came to the conclusion that ketoprofen is not as effective for addressing musculoskeletal pain.

One of the key safety recommendations relating to the use of phenylbutazone was that it is the NSAID that is most likely to induce gastrointestinal adverse events (right dorsal colitis or gastric glandular ulceration). However, although other NSAIDs have less adverse intestinal effects but can all be considered as potentially ulcerogenic. Horses on long-term analgesic therapy should be monitored carefully and further investigations undertaken if they show weight loss, poor appetite or develop the more general signs of pain described above, as this might indicate that the NSAID is having adverse effects on the intestine.

The BEVA team also concluded that giving NSAIDs at doses above those generally recommended in veterinary texts and stacking (i.e., combining maximal doses of different NSAIDs) should be avoided. These practices simply increase risk with no analgesic benefit.

Alternative analgesics

Unfortunately, there are not many practical alternatives to NSAIDs. There is research ongoing looking at topical NSAIDs and alternative drugs such as paracetamol, tramadol and fentanyl. These drugs are unlikely to be in common use in horses in training but do have a place in management of horses with more severe clinical problems.

Similarly, morphine and methadone are used commonly in equine hospitals, but these Schedule 2 controlled drugs are generally not used widely in practice. Buprenorphine has been extensively researched recently and evidence is accumulating supporting its use particularly in the peri-operative patient.

Final warnings

The BEVA group’s report contained a clear warning that highly potent analgesia should only be utilised under the direct control of a veterinary surgeon who has fully evaluated a horse and having developed a therapeutic, analgesic plan that includes ongoing monitoring. It is also important to bear in mind that the best way to alleviate pain associated with a specific clinical condition is to cure the underlying cause. Painkillers should always be used with respect and not be seen as a way to patch up a horse that has an undiagnosed musculoskeletal problem or internal condition.

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Good Going – are ground descriptions accurate across Europe?

By Lissa Oliver

The state of the going is one of the touchiest topics in racing. One trainer will be doing a rain dance as another prays for sunshine, while all the time the Clerk of the Course has an eye on his weather app as he tries to balance the protection of his turf with the provision of safe ground for racing. Few would envy him, but many will criticise him. Just what are the issues both sides are facing?

Heinrich Sievert, head groundsman at Baden-Baden, speaks for all those in charge of the turf at racecourses when he explains the complexities of his role and the importance of the root system. It’s not what we see above the track that really matters, it’s what is keeping it alive below.

“Before the race meeting starts we must improve the root system. We make sure the grass is growing to the ideal depth, and most importantly we try to create a solid root system. Shallow roots are not good for horses to race on. We improve aeration and allow water to infiltrate to encourage the root system. We use a small amount of fertiliser, but really we want to feed the roots and we don’t want too much growth above ground. We try to keep growth as natural as possible.

“We must ensure we do good work throughout the whole year to maintain the ground. We work closely under instruction from the Direktorium, who have a checklist to ensure safe ground for horses and riders. If the ground is not safe, the Direktorium stops everything and we cannot race. If they are happy and approve the ground, it’s my job to keep it OK. 

“We can’t change the ground conditions on the day; we can only water if the ground becomes too hard, but we can’t do a lot more other than keeping it in the best possible condition before racing. Watering is not ideal, it can make the ground slippery and unsafe. 

“On the day of racing, I use a penetrometer and I test the ground all over the course. Unless we have a heavy thunderstorm and rain, the going will not change, and the jockeys will be in agreement with the stated going”.

The good news is that it’s clear that Sievert and all clerks of racecourses are singing from the same hymn sheet as the trainer. The discrepancies arise then from the highly personalised needs of individual horses and prioritising between this afternoon’s track condition or the long-term protection of the track. It is all very well to argue against watering a track and changing the going from firm to good, but it isn’t ideal to race on bare patches of ground, and some consideration must be given to the grass as well as the horse. 

There is a common suspicion among trainers that Clerks of the Course intentionally water a track to prevent a description of firm going, but following any successive dry days in warm weather the turf will require watering, with no ulterior motive regarding the going description. Grass is a plant and needs water to remain healthy. Recently at Sandown Park, 5mm (millimetres) was added three days before the meeting, which was run on good to firm. 

“For a high-quality card we are aiming for the fast side of good”, says Sandown Park Clerk of the Course Andrew Cooper. “We’ve had almost four full days of dry weather and you’re going to lose 2-3mm of moisture a day. If you did nothing you'd be good to firm, firm. It's a judgement call what you do and when you do it. It's easy to be critical of something on Monday morning when what it all boils down to is what it's like at 6pm on Thursday night".

We are all at the mercy of the weather and while water can be added, if needed, it cannot be removed. State-of-the-art drainage systems may help, but ultimately the ground is what we, and the clerks, are given.

Scientific advances in both groundskeeping and measuring of going may help, but even the GoingStick cannot remove the subjectivity of descriptions. In January 2009, the BHA introduced into the British Rules of Racing a requirement that a GoingStick reading be made available by racecourses for each race meeting at the declaration stage and again on race day itself. The readings are published alongside the Clerk of the Course's official going description. The GoingStick is also used in France, Sweden, Norway and one Irish racecourse (Gowran Park). 

The GoingStick accurately measures the penetration and the shear (the energy needed to pull back to an angle of 45 degrees from the ground), combining the two measurements to represent a scientifically-based proxy for the firmness of the ground and level of traction experienced by a horse during a race.

The BHA claimed that, “Moving beyond the traditional subjective approach, the GoingStick is a device that clerks of the Course use to give an objective numerical reading that will reflect the state of the going at any given racecourse.” However, the specific GoingStick figure is subject to any number of course-specific variables and different tracks can produce different going descriptions, despite having the same reading. The verbal description by a clerk is still used alongside the numerical reading. Cooper reflects the views of many clerks when he admits, “I certainly wouldn't ever want to be putting out a GoingStick reading on its own; I think we need the verbal assessment as well”.

The GoingStick, far from providing an objective description, is user-specific and still depends on the pressure used by an individual to push it into the ground. It differs only from the traditional penetrometer in the fact it produces a calculated figure rather than the personal judgement of the user and many Clerks of the Course state they prefer the traditional penetrometer. Whichever version of stick is used, the course must still be measured at a minimum of 30 points across the track, always at the same points for consistency.

A greater issue is in the interpretation of the going description. Not only is it subjective, but even if we can all agree it’s soft, is that softer than one particular horse would like or firmer than the preference of another? Only the trainer of the horse can know. This brings us to the question of welfare, of both horse and trainer. Is it right to run a horse on unsuitable ground? And is it right to penalise a trainer if he or she withdraws a horse because of the ground?

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Post-Race Collapse - Prevention & Management

By Dr. David Marlin

Fortunately, incidents of post-race collapse are relatively rare following racing, however if they do occur, it’s important to know what steps can be taken. Common causes of post-race collapse include cardiac arrhythmias, neurologic events, internal bleeding due to large blood vessel rupture, airway obstruction and overheating. All of these are a serious cause for concern and likely to require veterinary support. However, overheating is likely to be one of the most common reasons for post-race collapse, but it is often not recognised as such and can lead to horses not receiving prompt treatment that may ensure a swift and uneventful recovery with no long-lasting injury.

During races, horses get hot because for every unit of energy they use which makes the muscles contract, four times as much energy is produced as heat. The harder and longer the horse works, the more heat it produces. Although horses lose heat by sweating (around 85%) and through breathing (around 15%) during a race, around 90% or more of the heat produced is stored in the muscles. Even so, on a hot day, horses may come in at the end of a race with body temperatures 1-2°C higher than they would for the same race in cool conditions. 

It would not be unusual for horses to finish races with rectal temperatures of 40-41°C. But taking rectal temperature can also mislead us as the temperature inside the working muscles may be much higher; and it can take five minutes for the rectal temperature to reach a peak after a horse pulls up, increasing by another 1-2°C. It’s as we get to rectal temperatures of 42°C that the risk of collapse due to hyperthermia (high body temperature) becomes significant. Let’s look at why high body temperature can lead to collapse.

Firstly, very high body temperature leads to direct and damaging effects on the brain, the nervous system as a whole and the heart, which may lead to collapse. These effects are related to how high the temperature is and how long the horse stays at that elevated body temperature. For example, if a horse was not cooled off following a race, then it may take 5-10 minutes for the onset of collapse. However, post-race collapse on pulling-up and/or returning to the winners enclosure or stables is not uncommon, and this has a different underlying cause.  

During the race, the horse actually reduces blood flow to the skin and chooses instead to send as much as possible to the muscles. This is very different to the situation in people where a significant amount of blood is always sent to the skin to help cooling (thermoregulation). The consequence of blood being directed to the muscles is that the muscle temperatures increase rapidly even over a few minutes of a race. When the horse starts to pull-up, this is reversed and blood is suddenly redirected to the skin. This is most pronounced when the horse comes to a stop. The effect is similar to fainting in people; the flow of blood to the surface causes a fall in blood pressure and effectively the horse faints. 

Clearly, collapse of horses is undesirable and has the potential to cause further injury, so it is important to recognise the risks for post-race collapse with respect to overheating and what to do if the situation arises. One of the common misconceptions of post-race collapse is that this is due to “lack of oxygen”. Whilst this could be true in some cases, this is likely to occur in a very small number of horses and only in those with airway obstruction. From studies on treadmills, for example, we know that within a few seconds of starting to slow down, the low oxygen levels in the blood are immediately reversed and even become higher than they were before exercise. People will often cite the ‘blowing’ of horses after a race as an attempt by the horse ‘to get more oxygen in’, however, it’s clear from a number of studies that blowing/breathing after exercise is directly related to body temperature and not oxygen levels. Rapidly reducing body temperature by aggressive cooling results in a more rapid cessation of blowing.   

When should heat stress and overheating be suspected? A horse that is hot to touch, blowing very hard and also ataxic (wobbly) when pulled up should be suspected as suffering from overheating, and cooling should be started immediately. If possible avoid turning in tight circles but keep walking as this helps increase blood pressure. Even in cases where overheating is not the main problem, cooling is extremely unlikely to have any negative effects. As mentioned previously, overheating is frequently not considered as a possible cause for post-race ataxia/collapse and may therefore not be recorded as such. 

Some time ago Professor Tim Parkin and I examined data from the British Horseracing Authority over three seasons of diagnosed cases of post-race heat stress. Over a three-year period, 108 cases had been recorded by on-course veterinary surgeons post-race. A number of factors significantly increased the risk of a horse suffering overheating. Perhaps not surprisingly, races run in the spring or summer were eight times more likely to include at least one horse with heat stress as races run in the autumn or winter. National Hunt races were almost three times more likely to have a horse with heat stress due to the longer duration of the races compared with the flat. Also, for any type of race, there was an increasing risk for every five furlongs (1,000m). Races run in the afternoon were also three times more likely to have a heat stress case than a race run in the evening. Finally, faster races also increased the risk of horses suffering overheating. 

This should all be expected: long races and/or faster races in the afternoon on warm days in spring and summer carry an increased risk of overheating/heat stress and collapse. As not racing in such conditions is not likely to be an option, it’s essential that racecourses and trainers are aware of the signs and risks of overheating and the risk of post-race collapse and take appropriate and prompt action if necessary. 

Aggressive cooling is now used extensively in professional endurance racing and eventing, as well as in all equestrian disciplines at major events such as FEI World Championships and Olympic Games. The principle is simple. Applying cold water (0-5°C), either from a hose or from a large container of ice in water, rapidly cools the blood in the skin which in turn more slowly cools the muscles. In horses that are very hot and at risk of heat stroke/collapse, there is no requirement or benefit to scraping water. The key to minimising risk is continuous application of water over as much of the body surface as possible until the breathing starts to recover (i.e., until the blowing reduces). This is the best and most practical indicator of the effectiveness of the cooling. It’s also essential to continue aggressive cooling for 5-10 minutes to bring a horse’s temperature down 1-2°C. As mentioned previously, the cessation of blowing is the best indicator of effective cooling.   

Applying cold towels, fans, shade, ice packs on large blood vessels, ice in the rectum, spraying with alcohol are all minimally effective in comparison with continuous application of large volumes of cold water all over the body. In contrast to widely held misconceptions, this approach to cooling does not cause the horse to heat up due to constriction of blood vessels in the skin nor does it cause muscle or kidney damage. The key to preventing collapse and or permanent injury due to heat stroke is rapid instigation of cooling. Literally, seconds count. Delaying cooling by thirty seconds may result in a collapsed horse.

Even in cases where the cause of ataxia/collapse is not primarily due to overheating, starting cooling until veterinary help arrives will not make the situation worse. 

Compared with their jockeys, horses are actually able to tolerate much higher body temperatures. A jockey with a temperature of 41°C would be comatose and at risk of serious injury or even death, whilst a horse at 41°C would still be running. However, it is possible for both jockeys and horses to acclimatise to heat. Acclimatisation is the process whereby the body becomes more tolerant of heat as a result of regular daily exercise in the heat. Of course racehorses are most commonly trained early in the morning in the cooler part of the day, yet the majority of races are held in the warmer times of the day, so it’s conceivable that most racehorses are not heat acclimatised. It may also be of interest that heat acclimatisation also improves performance.

In summary, overheating of horses during races is more likely in longer, faster races at warmer times of the year. Horses that are hotter than normal are at an increased risk of heat-related collapse, often when returning to the paddock and standing. Horses that are very hot to touch, blowing hard, wobbly and possibly ‘excited’ are likely to be at risk for collapse. Starting cooling aggressively immediately can lead to rapid recovery and prevent collapse and the risk of more serious injury. 

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How has horses' feed changed? Thoroughbred Nutrition Past & Present

By Catherine Rudenko

Feeding practices for racehorses have changed as nutritional research advances and food is no longer just fuel but a tool for enhancing performance and providing that winning edge. 

Whilst feeding is dominantly considered the content of the feed bucket, which by weight forms the largest part of the horse’s diet, changes in forage quality have also played a role in the changing face of thoroughbred nutrition. The content of the feed bucket, which is becoming increasingly elaborate with a multitude of supplements to consider, the forages—both long and short chop and even the bedding chosen—all play a part in what is ‘the feed program’. Comparing feed ingredients of the past against the present provides some interesting insights as to how the industry has changed and will continue to change.

Comparing key profiles of the past and present 

The base of any diet is forage, being the most fundamental need of the horse alongside water. Forage quality and form has changed over the years particularly since haylage entered the market and growers began to focus specifically on equine. The traditional diet of hay and oats, perhaps combined with mash as needed, provided a significantly different dietary intake to that now seen for horses fed a high-grade haylage and fortified complete feed. 

Traditional Diet

• 7kg Oats

• 1kg Mash – comprised of bran, barley, linseed and epsom salt

• 0.5kg Chaff

• Hay 6% protein consumed at 1% of bodyweight

Modern Diet – medium-grade haylage

• 8kg Generic Racing Mix 

• 0.5kg Alfalfa Chaff

• 60ml Linseed Oil

• 60g Salt

• Haylage 10% protein consumed at 1% of bodyweight

Modern Diet – high-grade haylage

• 8kg Generic Racing Mix 

• 0.5kg Alfalfa Chaff

• 60ml Linseed Oil

• 60g Salt

• Haylage 13% protein consumed at 1% of bodyweight

The traditional example diet of straights with bran and hay easily met and exceed the required amount of protein providing 138% of requirement. When looking at the diet as a whole, the total protein content of the diet inclusive of forage equates to 9.7%. In comparison the modern feeding example using a high-grade haylage produces a total diet protein content equivalent to 13.5%. The additional protein whilst beneficial to development, muscle recovery and immune support can become excessive. High intakes of protein against actual need have been noted to affect acid base balance of the blood, effectively lowering blood pH (1). Modern feeds for racing typically contain 13-14% protein which complement forages of a basic to medium-grade protein content very well; however when using a high-grade forage, a lower protein feed may be of benefit. Many brands now provide feeds fortified with vitamins and minerals designed for racing but with a lower protein content. 

Whilst the traditional straight-based feeding could easily meet energy and protein requirements, it had many short-falls relating to calcium and phosphorus balance, overall dietary mineral intake and vitamin intake. Modern feeds correct for imbalances and ensure consistent provision of a higher level of nutrition, helping to counterbalance any variation seen within forage. Whilst forage protein content has changed, the mineral profile and its natural variability has not. 

Another point of difference against modern feeds is the starch content. In the example diet, the ‘bucket feed’ is 39% starch, a value that exceeds most modern racing feeds. Had cracked corn been added or a higher inclusion of boiled barley been present, this level would have increased further. Racing feeds today provided a wide range of starch levels ranging from 10% up to the mid-thirties, with feeds in the ‘middle range’ of 18-25% becoming increasingly popular. There are many advantages to balancing starch with other energy sources including gut health, temperament and reducing risk of tying-up. 

The horse with a digestive anatomy designed for forages has limitations as to how much starch can be effectively processed in the small intestine, where it contributes directly to glucose levels. Undigested starch that moves into the hindgut is a key factor in acidosis and whilst still digested, the pathway is more complex and not as beneficial as when digested in the small intestine. Through regulating starch intake in feeds the body can operate more effectively, and energy provided through fibrous sources ensures adequate energy intake for the work required. 

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Advances in Imaging of the Equine Athletic Heart

By Francesca Worsman BVM&S MRCVS

Horserace Betting and Levy Board Senior Clinical Training Scholar in Equine Internal Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh

Horses, through selective breeding for athletic excellence, have well-developed hearts that rarely cause problems compared to those encountered by humans. On occasions however, things go wrong. Due to their well-developed physiology, horses are at risk of a fibrillating heart (atrial fibrillation), while circumstantial evidence suggests that more severe heart rhythm abnormalities, somewhat akin to those experienced by human athletes, may cause sudden death. Ultrasound examination of the heart, known as echocardiography is a readily available tool for examining the heart and significant advances in ultrasound technology are likely to provide exciting information about the detailed function of the equine heart. A huge benefit of ultrasound is that it is non-invasive and can be carried out on a standing unsedated horse, so normal heart function is maintained during the examination. 

The equine heart, like all mammalian hearts, has four chambers. The right atrium, which receives oxygen-depleted blood from the organs, passes it into the right ventricle which then pumps it to the lungs. Blood picks up oxygen in the lungs and then returns it to the left atrium, which then passes it onto the left ventricle for pumping to the organs of the body, including the muscles. Oxygen is thus delivered to the tissues and then the cycle repeats, more than 50,000 times per day! The left and right atria work in unison during heart filling (diastole), and the left and right ventricles work in unison during evacuation of blood from the heart (systole). Murmurs, often detected by veterinary surgeons when listening to hearts, are either caused by normal forward blood flow through the heart or by backflow leakage across the valves within the heart (regurgitation). Many of these murmurs are not a cause for concern, although some regurgitant murmurs are more severe and can cause problems with heart function. Similarly most heart rhythm abnormalities are innocuous and do not affect performance while others are more serious. In some horses, due to suspicion by a veterinary surgeon of a more significant problem, extensive evaluation of the heart is required; echocardiography is one of the key tools for diagnostic evaluation of the heart to assess the impact of any problems on athletic performance.

Image taken from the right side of the horse. Biplane views are on the left (4 chamber standard long axis view at top, short axis view at the bottom of the picture) and 3DE image on the right of the picture. In real-time the image can be manipulated as the heart is beating to visualise the cardiac structures from different angles. RV = right ventricle, TV = tricuspid valve, RA = right atrium, LV = left ventricle, MV = mitral valve, LA = left atrium.

Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) is an exciting new tool that has recently become available in equine medicine and may shed light on important heart problems in horses, including those that cause poor performance. Compared to standard two dimensional echocardiography (2DE), which evaluates a single scan plane, 3DE involves the simultaneous collection of multiple scan planes from the heart to create a pyramid of scan data. 3DE is preferable to 2DE because in theory it does not rely on geometric assumptions on chamber shape to calculate chamber volumes. Also assessment of heart architecture and function (including that of valves) is likely to be more accurate as the technique provides unlimited viewing planes. Finally, for assessment of regurgitant flow, this technique should also be better because the image can be manipulated to better assess the leaky flow from those valves. In humans, for certain heart volume and muscle mass measurements, 3DE is more comparable than 2DE to cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is the acknowledged gold standard. Unfortunately, owing to the significantly larger size of horses, there is currently no equipment available for equine cardiac MRI. Therefore, 3DE could provide the next best option for more detailed equine cardiac evaluation. 

Mitral valve regurgitation for example is commonly encountered in the equine athlete and, while often of no consequence, in more severe cases, it may lead to poor performance. Pathological consequences are due to backflow leakage causing secondary left atrial volume overload, and this will lead to an increased likelihood of atrial fibrillation. Potential advantages of 3DE in this context are more accurate assessment of the degree of volume overload, the regurgitant orifice (i.e., size of the hole!), and the valve structure and motion. Mitral valve regurgitation can be easily confirmed by 2DE, however it can be more difficult to ascertain the cause and severity. With 3DE, the software allows manipulation and therefore anatomic evaluation of the valves from many angles including ‘face-on‘ views. This results in more detailed evaluation of subtle abnormal valve motion and confirmation of suspected findings, which can’t be reliably detected by 2DE -  eg. mitral valve thickening, mitral valve prolapse or ruptured chordae tendineae as the cause of mitral valve disease. Geometric assumptions on volume are avoided as much more structural data is obtained.

A few specialist centres worldwide currently offer 3DE imaging for horses including the Equine Hospital at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh. In equine medicine we are still at an early stage of using 3DE as it is not validated in horses, therefore it is mostly used in research at the moment as opposed to routine diagnosis. As part of my research at Edinburgh, sponsored by the Horserace Betting and Levy Board, I have been assessing the left atrial volume using 3DE from thoroughbreds in training. One of my aims was to determine the variability of equine left atrial volume measurement using a special 3DE software analysis package to see how much variation there was between successive 3DE measurements by the same person. Forty-four National Hunt thoroughbreds in training were scanned to obtain the 3DE views of this chamber. We then graded them to exclude images of reduced image quality so that we were only assessing good quality images of the left atrium. In total 24 horses were included—aged 4-9 yrs, weighing 411-534kg. I analysed the images retrospectively, after the horses were scanned. I didn’t include any horses with grade >3/6 heart murmurs. This was because we first need to validate 3DE with normal, healthy hearts. Random generated order measurements were obtained by a single person on four occasions. Real-time three-dimensional end-systolic (ESV) and end-diastolic (EDV) left atrial volumes were measured using 3DE software, and the results were then statistically analysed.

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News from the European Mediterranean Horseracing Federation 2019 General Assembly

By Paull Khan, PhD.

To many, Norway is the land of the midnight sun or that of the Northern Lights. But to the race-fan, these meteorological mysteries are incidental—Norway is, first and foremost, home to that enigma, the Whip-less Race.

This year, the EMHF’s General Assembly ‘roadshow’ returned to Scandinavia, where the Norwegian Jockey Club hosted our meeting at the country’s sole thoroughbred racetrack, Ovrevoll, after which delegates were privileged to experience the joyous and colourful processions of Norway’s Constitution Day and also witness firsthand the running of a full card without crops—of which more later.

Our meeting broke fresh ground in a number of ways. For the first time, the press was represented, and a number of commercial enterprises (Flair - manufacturers of Nasal Strips, RASLAB - international distributors of racing data and rights, and Equine Medirecord, who supply veterinary compliance software) joined the social programme and mingled with the administrators. The number of presentations was also increased, from which it was made apparent to everyone, if we did not know it before, that the range of threats we face as a sport is diverse indeed. 

Illegal Betting

Amongst these threats is one which to date has had far greater impact in Asia, but whose tentacles are increasingly taking Europe into their grasp. The enemy is illegal betting, on which Brant Dunshea, Chief Regulatory Officer of British Horseracing Authority, gave a presentation. Recently co-opted to bring a European perspective to a task-force set up by the EMHF’s equivalent in Asia—the Asian Racing Federation—Dunshea was shocked at the sheer size of the problem.

Defining ‘illegal betting’ as including betting which takes place in an unregulated environment, (e.g., an off-shore operation which was contributing nothing to the sport and was under the regulatory control of neither government nor racing authority), he presented figures which showed that illegal betting in six Asian countries—predominantly using the betting exchange model—was vast in scale; was increasing faster than its legal equivalent; was funding criminal activities including through money laundering; attracted disproportionately higher rates of problem gambling; was poorly understood by governments and racing authorities and was presenting new challenges for regulators in relation to dealing with race corruption. A decrease in the number of suspicious betting investigations on British betting exchanges had been experienced. It now seemed likely that some of this activity had simply shifted to the illegal and unregulated markets.

This is an issue that Europe cannot afford to ignore. The British Horseracing Authority has committed to replicate the Asian research which will seek to quantify the scale of betting on British racing across illegal and unregulated platforms; and Dunshea took the opportunity to seek other volunteers from other EMHF countries to join in this effort. The task-force aims to produce a plan of best practice to identify and tackle this problem for the use of racing authorities.

Liv Kristiansen, Racing Director of the Norwegian Jockey Club, has been elected to the EMHF's Executive Council.

Dunshea pointed to the salutary conclusion that increasing regulation and taxation of the legal market was not necessarily the answer to the problem and risked the unintended consequence of causing punters to migrate to illegal markets, with their lower margins and (for many countries) a wider and more attractive range of available betting options. Key in the battle will be to engage governments in this discussion, ensure their understanding of the scale of the problem and the interconnectivity between policies in regard to legal betting and the propensity to bet through illegal channels, and try to find a balanced tax burden, alongside sufficient laws and law enforcement effort, to snuff out this noxious menace.

Gene Doping

Gene doping is no longer something from the realms of science fiction but is practiced today. Simon Cooper, co-chair of the European and African Stud Book Committee explained: “DNA can be inserted, substituted, deleted any number of ways—a bit like cut-and-paste on your computer. Gene editing kits can be bought on the internet”. He gave a salutary example of its potential effects. “Mice normally will run for about 800 metres before they’ve had enough. After some mice were injected, in an experiment in Australia, with the stamina protein PEPCK, and genetically manipulated, they ran six kilometres”. The potential to inflict great damage on the sport of horseracing is obvious, and we should be grateful that the state of vigilance among the international racing and breeding authorities is high, with excellent work particularly being carried out in Japan as well as Australia. There is no evidence of nefarious gene doping of racehorses to date—and indeed no belief that it has—but part of the problem is that we cannot say unequivocally that it has not happened, because there is as yet no test to determine whether or not a horse has been subjected to this technique. This is the main focus of research, which will, if and once successful, be made available to Stud Books, as gatekeepers of the breed and racing authorities around the world. “Once DNA is changed, those changes are passed on”, added Cooper, so the more time that passes before detection, the greater the problem. Prevention, rather than retrospective identification, must therefore be the aim. It is believed that the most likely point at which genetic engineering would be carried out on a horse would be between conception and birth. A takeaway message from Cooper was that the racing world should shout loudly and clearly that its authorities have anticipated, and are prepared for, gene doping. Making those who would seek to cheat aware of this fact should, in and of itself, dissuade them from so doing and thereby reduce the risks of this nightmare ever becoming a reality. 

Jockeys’ Mental Health…

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Trainer Profile: Harry Dunlop

By Carl Evans

Frustrated by the lingering vapour trails of the financial crisis, Lambourn trainer Harry Dunlop sought an edge, and found it in France.

That was in 2011, when he ventured to Arqana’s October Yearling Sale for the first time, bought a yearling and found an avenue which, while not untrodden, gave his business another angle, namely buying French-bred horses to race for British owners across the Channel. His yard was conveniently located little more than an hour from the ferry port at Portsmouth. The prize money was good, and the French system of premiums given to horses bred in the country was a very attractive extra.

Seven years later, after steadily developing the process, Dunlop’s string includes some ten French-bred horses with which to target races on both sides of the Channel. Brexit could cause a few bumps along the way, but with an experienced shipping company on side, and his growing knowledge of racing in France, he is optimistic of a bright future.

Dunlop says: “Whatever Brexit throws up we will take of it, and on that score owners do not need to worry. Luck Greayer handles our shipping and excels at sorting out matters and getting across borders”.

Reflecting on that exploratory cross-Channel buying trip, he says: “In 2011 the recession was still having an effect and things were quite tough; we felt we had to do something different. I made my first trip to Arqana for a yearling sale, aiming to buy a horse on spec with a small budget. We bought an Astronomer Royal colt [for €16,000], and I managed to get seven people to form a syndicate with the promise of some racing in France.

“Named Sir Patrick Moore, he turned out to be a really nice two-year-old, who won first time out at Newbury’s Lockinge Stakes meeting, teeing up the option of running in Royal Ascot’s Coventry Stakes. Instead of that, we took him to Compiegne for a Class B race which he won, earning the equivalent of finishing second in the Coventry. That opened our eyes to how profitable it could be to race in France, and, no less importantly, we were seen to be trying something different.

“Sir Patrick Moore went on to be placed in a Listed race at two and in the [Gp3] Greenham Stakes the following year, and the owners all enjoyed going to different racecourses and enjoying some good lunches. We later sold him very well to race on in Australia.

“It steamrolled from there; we went back to Arqana the following October and have since bought four Stakes horses from that sale. The pound is weaker against the euro than when we started, but most of the horses we have bought would probably have cost more in Britain or Ireland”.

Dunlop is a family man, with two young sons (Tom and William) who know which way to place a saddle on a horse’s back. William is becoming a pony-racing rider to note, and Harry’s wife, Christina, plays an important role in the business which cannot be overstated. A horsewoman who has ridden since childhood, Christina is involved at the yard on several fronts, not least as head of public relations.

Six years working for PR specialists Johnno Spence Consulting, with the Epsom Derby as her key client, Christina polished a naturally easy style that would make her invaluable in any trainer’s yard. Yet Christina is a grafter too, willing to tackle anything from office administration to intractable colts, while organising staff discussions and outings and spending time on the road. Saying, with a barely-veiled side-swipe at her husband, “I do a lot of travelling—Harry says I’m very good at it”, she adds: “I have been across to France with runners on many occasions, and my French is certainly not fluent, but I’ve found that when I ask for help—be it from trainers, their assistants or staff—everyone is very helpful. We have always been welcomed”.

To anyone who has been following racing in recent decades, no matter how distantly, the name Dunlop must ring bells, for Harry’s older brother, Ed, is a Classic-winning Newmarket trainer who has successfully raided big races around the globe, while their late father, John, was a champion trainer who sent out the winners of 10 British Classics.

Harry says: “Ed and I chat a lot, and he’s very helpful. Newmarket is the centre of flat racing and therefore it’s nice to hear what’s going on up there, and I stay with him during the yearling sales.

“Dad was very proud of our achievements, and Knight To Behold winning last year’s Derby Trial gave him some pleasure just before he died. He had won the race on a number of occasions, and the following day we chatted on the phone several times about where to go and what to do next. He always loved to know about the good horses. This is not an easy business, but it’s very rewarding, and Dad recognised that when both Ed and I wanted to go into training”.

From Paradis to Paradise in Lambourn….

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All tied up?

By Catherine Rudenko

Tying-up or ER (exertional rhabdomyolysis) is a problem that every yard will encounter at some point in time with reports of 5-7% of the thoroughbred population being affected. ER is the general term used to cover two main forms of tying-up, acute or recurrent. ER by definition relates to the breakdown of striated muscle fibres following exercise. These fibres connect to the bone allowing movement of the skeleton. Damage causes anything from mild stiffness to the inability to move.

With much still unknown about the condition, the focus falls on reducing risk and ongoing management of those affected with recurrent form. The main area for intervention and management relates to feeds and feeding practices, an area that can be directly controlled by the yard and adjusted as needed for the individuals most affected.

Acute Exertional Rhabdomyolysis

The acute form is typically caused through factors external to the muscle rather than their being an intrinsic muscle defect.

Most commonly seen when the horse is adapting to a new level of work and the intensity or duration is too strenuous. Where speed work is concerned, the most likely cause is a depletion of cellular high energy phosphates, the muscles’ energy supply, combined with lactic acidosis. Where endurance work is concerned, depletion of intracellular glycogen—the stored form of glucose often combined with over-heating and electrolyte imbalances—is the common cause.

The other key factor for an acute episode is dietary energy intake being excessive to the current level of work. The use of high starch feeds to supply energy for horses in training is a common practice with grains, traditionally oats, forming the basis of such feeds. In the early stages of fitness work, an over-supply of energy relative to need, particularly when starch forms a large part of the diet, is a risk factor.

Recurrent Exertional Rhabdomyolysis

This form of ER, where episodes are frequent and often seen even at low levels of exercise, has led to the suggestion that much like humans, there is an inherited intrinsic muscle defect. Such defects would predispose the horse to ER. Documented defects relevant to thoroughbreds include a disorder in muscle contractility or excitation contraction coupling, whereby muscle fibres become over-sensitive and normal function is disrupted.  

Risk factors for ER in horses with the recurrent form include stress or high excitement during exercise, periods of jogging (10-30 minutes), infrequent exercise and over-feeding of energy in a high starch format relative to need.

Dietary Considerations for ER

The amount of energy fed and the type of energy fed are important considerations whether looking to avoid an acute feed related episode or considering the management of a horse with the recurrent form.

Other nutrients often talked about when managing ER include vitamin E, selenium and electrolytes. Historically the inclusion of vitamin E and selenium were considered important for the prevention of further episodes, however there is no evidence to support such use. A case of deficiency in either of these nutrients may well put the horse at a disadvantage and could perhaps create a state where occurrence is more notable; however, with the advent of fortified and balanced complete bagged feeds, such nutrients are normally supplied in more than adequate amounts. Their role as antioxidants which function to ‘mop-up’ damaging free radicals generated through training is where their use can benefit any horse at this level of work. The use of additional vitamin E is also recommended when increasing the fat content of the diet—a common practice when feeding horses with recurrent ER.

Electrolytes do play an important role in normal muscle function, and any deficiency noted in the diet should be corrected. Identifying a need in the diet is more easily done than determining if the individual horse has a problem with absorption or utilisation of the electrolytes. A urinary fractional excretion test (FE) will highlight issues, and subsequent correction through the diet to return the horse to within normal ranges may offer some improvement. However, it is important to note that for horses with recurrent ER, where an intrinsic muscle defect is present, the research to date has shown no electrolyte imbalances or differences between such horses and unaffected horses.

Quantifying ‘Low Starch and High fat’ Feeding

The recommended practice for management of ER is a reduction in starch and an increase in fats. This practice has two ways of benefiting the horse: a reduction in ‘spookiness’ or reactivity and a positive effect on muscle damage as seen by lower CK (creatine kinase) levels following exercise.

Positive effects on lowering CK levels were found when a higher proportion of the energy fed came from diets higher in fats and lower in non-structural carbohydrates (starches and sugars). The effect was noted when fed at 4.5kg/day—an amount easily reached and normally surpassed when feeding horses in training. The beneficial diet provided 20% of energy from fats and only 9% from starches and sugars compared to the more traditional sweet feed diet providing 45% of energy from starches and sugars and less than 5% from fats.

Finding Fats

Top dressing of oils will increase fat in the diet - with a normal intake of up to 100 mls per day. Although the horse can digest higher amounts, palatability usually restricts a higher intake. Pelleted or extruded fat sources are increasingly popular as alternatives to oils for their convenience of feeding and palatability. Straight rice bran and blends of materials such as rice bran, linseed and soya are available from most major feed companies. Oil content will typically range from 18-26% providing 180g-260g of oil per kilogram as fed.  

Racing feeds will also provide oil in the diet; content is quite varied typically from 4-10% providing 40g-100g per kilogram as fed. Hay and haylage also contains oil at a low level, typically 2% providing just 20g per kilogram on a dry matter basis.

Choosing Carbohydrates

Traditional feeding based on oats and other whole grains will have a higher starch content than feeds using a combination of grains and fibres. Levels of starch found in complete feeds and straights have a broad range from as low as 8% in a complete feed, specifically formulated to have a low starch content, and up to in excess of 50% for straights such as barley and naked oats.

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Finding Owners

By Alysen Miller

Millennials: as the younger generation of trainers comes of age, could they teach the old guard a thing or two about attracting and retaining new owners to the sport? As the racing industry collectively seeks to recruit a younger, more diverse demographic, and trainers are having to get increasingly creative in order to entice new owners into the sport, it is the trainers of the social media generation who are taking the reins.

The best way to make a small fortune in racing, so goes the proverb, is to start with a large fortune. But how large? £22,595, to be exact. According to the Racehorse Owners Association, that was the average cost of owning a flat racehorse in the UK in 2017 (the last year for which figures are available); and that’s before entry fees, veterinary bills and insurance are factored into the equation. Based on a horse’s running an average of 7.4 times a year, that gives a ‘cost-per-run’ of £3,053—in other words, a snip at £20 per second. Translated into Millennial parlance, that’s a lot of pieces of avocado toast. In short, you don’t have to be royalty to participate in the sport of kings, but it helps. So where do trainers find a pool of people willing to submit their bank balance to this particular kind of reverse equine alchemy?

Robert Cowell

The answer—as for where you turn when you want to find out what type of sandwich you are based on, your star sign or who would play your best friend in the movie of your life—is social media. Increasingly, trainers are turning to Facebook, Instagram and Twitter to advertise their wares to the wider world. These days, seemingly every trainer—Millennial or not—and his dog have a social media account (just ask the latest star of the Twittersphere, Jamie Osborne’s infamous whippet, Bad Bobby). “I think Facebook, Twitter and Instagram certainly help reach a larger audience”, says the decidedly non-Millennial Robert Cowell who, at 50, would doubtless be the first to admit that he is more au fait with winning posts than Facebook posts. “A lot of people that we have engaged with are very interested in the day-to-day life of what goes on in a racing yard. Short videos and little pictures every now and again—just giving them an update of what we do—is certainly no skin off our nose, and if it helps people to understand our industry, then I think it’s a very good thing”.

But though the tools at today’s trainers’ disposal may be relatively new-fangled, it remains to be seen just how novel this approach is in reality. From social media to syndicates, trainers have always sought new avenues to bring racehorse ownership to a wider public and diversify their portfolio of owners. Now a common sight on racecourses throughout Europe and, indeed, the world, the first syndicates in the UK were set up by Kennet Valley Thoroughbreds and then Highclere Racing more than 20 years ago. Today, Highclere is one of the largest manager of syndicates in Europe, where syndicate ownership is increasingly popular even as sole ownership is declining. In the UK alone, 5,447 people participated in ownership via syndicates or other shared ownership schemes in 2018—an increase of 6.2% year-on-year. Compare that with a 1.4% drop in sole ownership over the same period. So what is it about the communal approach that appeals to owners? The most obvious answer is the price: for a fraction of the cost of owning a racehorse outright, a syndicate member can rub shoulders with the Queen and Sheikh Mohammed in owners’ enclosures from Ascot to York. Yet the calibre of some of the celebrity clientele (high-profile syndicate members have included Sir Alec Ferguson, Elizabeth Hurley and Carol Vorderman, who can surely be counted upon to have done the math) belies the theory that cost alone is behind syndicates’ popularity.

Indeed, research shows that the satisfaction rating for syndicate members is 8.2 out of 10, compared to 7.5 out of 10 for sole owners, according to a 2016 survey undertaken by sports marketing agency Two Circles on behalf of the ROA and the BHA. Instead, the suggestion is that syndicate ownership appeals to civilians and celebrities alike because it confers a sense of being a part of something larger than oneself; of belonging to a community with whom to share in the highs and lows—in other words, that sounds rather a lot like a social network (Mark Zuckerberg, eat your heart out). So why not go all out for syndicates and the relative security they provide, rather than putting all one’s eggs in the gilded baskets of capricious individual owners?

Edward Bethell

“I think syndicates are a great thing”, says Edward Bethell who, at 26, sits squarely in the ‘digital native’ demographic. “I think trainers should do more of it. But then syndicates are a full-time job in themselves because you need someone to manage them. People need to be updated regularly”. So where does Bethell think trainers, and particularly young trainers, should focus their efforts? “I’m a big believer in social media. I think it gets you out there.

For a smaller trainer or for a young guy, you’ve got to create a niche in the market for yourself. I think social media can only be a good thing as long as you’re using it in a positive way”. Bethell, who has worked in Australia for Gai Waterhouse and sojourned for a stint in France, has overhauled his father’s social media profile and is making a name for himself as something of a social media maven.

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Dr. Andreas Jacobs

By Peter Muhlfeit

Dr. Andreas Jacobs is a truly international businessman with a record of managing globally significant organisations across diverse fields of interest. He is overseeing his family business with diverse interests in chocolate, education and e-commerce. Jacobs also oversees the growing presence of a multi-national thoroughbred empire—with breeding operations in Germany, England and South Africa. In all, there are over 200 mares across all three commercial properties as well as a series of high-profile stallions and racing interests. And he is the president of Baden Racing, running the most important race track in Germany. The Jacobs family’s contribution to thoroughbred racing and society at large extends further through the Jacobs Foundation, which is dedicated to promoting the development of young people through programs in life skills, computer skills and activities associated with nature and the environment.

Peter Muhlfeit spoke to Jacobs about the upcoming season with Baden Racing and his views on racing and breeding.

Dr Jacobs: You’ve studied classical music—cello and French horn—and you have a doctorate in European competition law and a Master of Business Administration. Those enterprises are far removed from the world of horseracing. What led you to get involved in breeding and racing of thoroughbreds?

Horses are a passion of our family since generations. My parents and grandparents were passionate horse riders in different disciplines.  When I was young, I started spending my weekends at horse shows. My first great horse was a very talented thoroughbred called Tristan. He was the first horse that was raced in our family silks. My grandfather bought him in England, and he became a top two-year-old in Germany, however, suffered from tendon issues. Subsequently, he became a riding horse.  I was able to ride him at the highest levels in dressage. He was a star and changed my life.

In 1995, my grandfather asked me to succeed him at Gestut Fahrhof. I was surprised but felt immensely honoured and privileged. So all my commitment and passion went into this stud. This is where the infection really started. Despite this passion, we have clear rules in my family. The fundamental rule is that family comes first, business comes second, and private passions come last. In that sense, I am a relatively disciplined horse owner.

In 2010, you also took the reins at Baden-Baden, the leading track in Germany to save it from going under. Why?

Baden-Baden is the most important race track in Germany. With only 13 race days during the year, Baden is generating over 25% of the German annual betting turnover. Baden-Baden is the flagship track. Without Baden, Germany has no relevance in racing, in black type races; and we all could close our breeding operations, our traditional studs and move elsewhere. It was of utmost importance to fix this flagship track to keep German breeding alive. I like to thank John Magnier for making this point to me around ten years ago.  

The problem started 15 years earlier—in the mid-nineties—when official betting turnovers collapsed, moving betting overseas to low-tax havens with no benefit for the race track. Germany, with low retail presence in betting, suffered more than any other European country. With the collapse of revenues, several race tracks were insolvent and had to close—like Baden-Baden in 2010.

Why did the old Baden-Baden management structure fail? And what's being done differently now to ensure Baden-Baden's ongoing success?

The former management had limited cost transparency and reacted late. When we took over in 2010, we established more transparency and got regional politicians and local communities back on board. And we received support from the German TBA who helps us finance our group races.  

2019 is the tenth season for Baden Racing under your leadership. What are your ambitions for Baden-Baden in the short, medium and long terms and for German racing as a whole?

Dr. Andreas Jacobs with our Incoming Children

We are planning and investing to continue the positive trend: more spectators on site, increasing betting revenue on and off track, and a strong recognition in the region. These three parameters are up since years. Never forget: if you win a race on a Wednesday in Baden, there are still 7,000 to 9,000 spectators celebrating with you! If you win on the weekend, we easily double this.

What are the major changes you have planned?

We offer three festivals a year: the Spring Festival at the end of May, the Great Festival Weekend of August, and the Sales & Racing Festival in October. At these fixtures, we run twelve group, five Listed and three rich Sales races—more than any other racing club in Germany. In recent years we decided to end each festival with a bang, presenting two Group races on the final days. Such Super-Sundays are very unusual for German racing. This year we will have a Super Weekend on 31 August and 1 Sept with two Group races on Saturday, two Group races and one Listed race on Sunday. This is the best any race track in Germany has ever offered. And, what everyone should know: There is no other race track in the world that has so many Michelin and Gault Millau Stars in proximity! So if you are tired of horses, you can enjoy great food and wine.

How much help does your national racing industry get from the German government?

Sports are very much a matter for the federal states in Germany, so we can’t expect too much from the national government. On the local level, we did receive quite some help over recent years to reinvest into the track (e.g., to build a new watering system and to renovate the grandstand).

Nationwide, our sport is suffering from one big loss: Our betting tax used to be reimbursed based on our contribution to breeding by selecting top horses and improving the quality of breed. This was a fundamental right in the German constitution of the 1920s. The reimbursement got cancelled recently for no justifiable reason. In Baden-Baden alone we lost a solid six-digit amount.  

What could be done to help German Pattern races, in terms of increasing the prize funds? 

We need more betting revenue and more sponsors. That’s quite easy to say but difficult to achieve. In Baden-Baden, we increased our TV coverage. You can watch the Grand Prix of Baden-Baden on German public TV, ARD or ZDF. Around 3 million viewers are watching it. We are happy to have Longines as main sponsor; still, for other tracks, it is difficult to find sponsors for Pattern races.

Turning to your breeding operations: Why is the German racing and breeding industry not going down the 'speed' route with their stallions as is the vogue in other breeding nations?

Our strength has always been middle- to long-distance horses. They are late-maturing and bred to be tough. That’s pretty unique in a world where you look for a quick return and a two-year-old career. And it explains why German horses are so popular in Australia to win the Melbourne Cup.

The shortest Gp1 race in Germany is 2,000 meters. If you want to stand a champion sire, he should be middle to long distance. Historically, a stallion had to win a Gp1 over a mile-and-a-half to achieve a rating that allows him to become a stallion. So we were mating stayers to stayers, tough horses with tough horses. We also have conditions of no bute or Lasix to become a stallion. It is another criteria where pure, natural toughness will survive and continue. 

What is the influence of your stallions on the international stage and your hopes for Silvano, Nathaniel, Querari, Equiano, Maxios and your new resident Helmet?

Nathaniel obviously has made his mark already with Enable—one of the best fillies in recent decades. He himself was brilliant, and he is reproducing it. This is what you love to see as a breeder. Silvano in South Africa is exceptional. Close to my heart. The first horse I bred, raised and accompanied. He has now 21 individual Gp1 winners in Europe and South Africa. He is already a legend. Querari is following him, being the best younger stallion in South Africa by all measures. And at Fährhof we have the most beautiful Maxios—the best bred son of the legendary Monsun and one of the most influential stallions in the world. We decided to attract Helmet to stand at Fährhof. He fits the German taste, having been a tough race horse and champion at two and three and stemming from a German family with Anna Paola, having sired a Dubai World Cup winner in his first year. What more can you expect?

Further to your own interests in South Africa, do you see South African racing and breeding playing a greater role internationally?

I first came to South Africa in 1989 when my wife worked at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, where the first heart transplant was done by Dr Bernard a few years earlier. We started dating in Cape Town. We love the country, and in 2002 we fell in love with the stud, which has both beauty and ruggedness. It became a family place with many European faces—horse faces. When I compare Maine Chance Farms with our other studs, there is no doubt that Europe is more sophisticated along the value chain. But South African horses are globally competitive because they grow up more natural. South African breeding is survival of the fittest. I can’t wait to see South Africa being allowed to export under reasonable quarantine regulations. It will be a source of excellent horses.

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EIPH: An Australian Perspective with Worldwide Implications

By Ellie Crispe and Guy Lester

Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH) is a common disease of racehorses. The precise cause of EIPH is yet to be fully determined, but a well-accepted theory is that lung blood vessels rupture in response to the extremely high blood pressure and low airway pressure experienced during strenuous exercise. The barrier that separates the airway from the blood vessels is ultra-thin to facilitate the efficient exchange of gases, but this predisposes to breakage. The condition is most frequently described in Thoroughbred and Standardbred racehorses, but it has also been identified in racing Appaloosas and Quarter Horses, as well as horses involved in other high intensity athletic activities, including showjumpers, 3-day eventers, barrel racers, steeplechasers and polo horses.

EIPH is not unique to horses and has been reported in human athletes, as well as racing greyhounds and camels. Our group at Murdoch University in Perth Australia has had an interest in EIPH, which has led to three recent publications in the Equine Veterinary Journal.1-3

How common is EIPH?

Blood from both nostrils—also known as epistaxis—is the most obvious manifestation of EIPH and occurs between 1.5 and 8.4/1000 race starts, varying with racing jurisdiction. Epistaxis represents a severe manifestation of EIPH, and basing surveys on its presence vastly underestimates the true prevalence of lung haemorrhage. There are several techniques used to diagnose EIPH, but endoscopy of the trachea 30-120 minutes after racing or galloping is a common and reliable method. Occurrence and severity of pulmonary haemorrhage is typically graded using a 0-4 scale. Using endoscopy, we reported a prevalence of EIPH post-race in Australian thoroughbreds racing on turf tracks of around 55%, with most positive horses having low to moderate volumes of blood in the trachea. EIPH is less common if horses are examined after trialling, and reduced further if examined after track gallops. The prevalence of EIPH increases when horses are examined on multiple occasions after racing, and in fact all horses in our research population that had seven monitored race-starts experienced EIPH on at least one occasion.

What is the effect of EIPH on race-day performance?

It is generally considered that EIPH has a negative impact on racing performance, but evidence for this assertion is surprisingly lacking. We performed 3,794 post-race endoscopy exams on over 1,500 Australian horses and reported that inferior race-day performance was limited to horses with severe EIPH (grades 3 and 4); this reflected only 6.3% of all examinations. Horses with the highest grades of EIPH (grade 4) were less likely to finish in the first three, finished further from the winner, were less likely to collect race earnings, were slower over the final stages of the race, and were more likely to be overtaken by other competitors in the home straight than horses without EIPH. Interestingly, horses with EIPH grade 1 or 2 were more likely to overtake others in the home straight, compared to horses without EIPH (grade 0).

It is highly unlikely that low-grade EIPH (grade 1 or 2) confers an athletic advantage; a plausible explanation is that horses that are ridden competitively to the finish are functioning at their maximal physiological limit, compared to horses that are eased up, and overtaken, during the finishing stages of the race because they are not in prize contention or are affected by interference in the home straight.  Another interesting finding was that horses with moderate to severe EIPH (grades 3 or 4) raced the early and mid-sections of the race faster than horses without EIPH. It is possible that these horses reach the breaking threshold of the small lung blood vessels at an earlier stage in the race compared to horses that start the race slower, compounding the severity thereafter. A study of barrel racing horses reported that horses with the most severe grade of EIPH were faster than horses without EIPH, a finding which may also reflect this rapid acceleration increasing the risk of EIPH. It may be wise for trainers to instruct jockeys riding horses with a history of moderate to severe EIPH to refrain from racing in this manner.

What is the effect of a one-off diagnosis of EIPH over a horse’s career?…

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Skin-deep: overcoming barriers for effective transdermal drug delivery

By Roger Smith

Ancient art, modern science

One shared medicinal practice amongst disparate ancient societies was the application of primitive ointments to the skin to treat almost all and any ailments. A vast plethora of poultices and plasters have been described, including in Babylonian and Greek medicine texts1 amongst others, suggesting that the magical health-restoring powers of ointments were well-recognised to traverse the skin. Thus, it was no coincidence that the skin was the preferred therapeutic route over surgical (and oral) intervention since the former method was likely to result in reduced mortality rates compared to the latter; undoubtedly an important consideration, given that the top ancient physicians were likely charged with the health of the royal courts.

Although the art of transdermal delivery of medicines dates back millennia, it is only in more recent times that the science of transdermal drug delivery in man has advanced significantly2.  The choice of modern drugs for topical applications is, however, relatively limited compared to the seemingly infinite choice available for oral delivery.  This is perhaps not surprising since the gut is an organ that has evolved with the main purpose of absorbing food (chemicals when it comes to it) whereas the skin, despite being the largest organ, has evolved primarily as a protective layer to prevent desiccation of underlying tissues and to keep out harmful environmental chemicals. As this includes medicinal drugs, the pursuit of transdermal administration would appear, at first sight, to be an illogical choice. However, there are several compelling reasons why transdermal delivery routes are an important alternative to pills, injections or inhalation routes:

• It avoids poor absorption after oral ingestion—especially in animals, the absorption of a drug can vary between the omnivore (e.g., human) and herbivore (e.g., horse) stomach.  

• It avoids first-pass effect where the blood circulation from the gut passes through the liver to remove absorbed drugs.

• It can reduce systemic drug levels to minimise adverse effects.

• The design of sustained release formulations overcomes the frequent dosing necessitated by oral and injectables to achieve constant drug levels.

• It enables ease and efficacy of drug withdrawal.

• Transdermal drug delivery is painless and non-invasive, thereby potentially allowing longer treatment when daily injection is unacceptable or impractical.

• It has the potential to target local administration such as for the treatment of flexor tendon disease because the tendons are subcutaneous.

Challenges for transdermal drug applications

The skin is made up of three key layers: the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis (figure 1) and the water-attracting (hydrophilic) or water-repelling (hydrophobic) properties within each raise unique challenges for topical or transdermal drug applications.  

Figure 1 – Anatomy of the skin with expanded illustration showing the cells of the stratum corneum (‘bricks’) embedded in lipid matrix (‘mortar’).

Topical applications, such as insect repellents and sunscreen creams, target the surface of the skin or deliver a drug locally such as for the control of inflammation (insect bite or reaction to an allergen). In contrast the aim of transdermal, or subcutaneous, applications are to deliver the drug deeper to either an adjacent organ, or, more commonly, to the blood circulation as an alternative to oral or needle routes to reach distant organs. The main barrier to local or transdermal delivery is the outermost layer of the skin, called the stratum corneum in the epidermis (figure 1). This consists of dead skin cells, the corneocytes, that combine with lipid bilayers into a tightly packed “bricks-and-mortar” layer that form alternating hydrophilic (the water rich corneocytes) and hydrophobic (lipid bilayer) regions (figure 1). The stratum corneum therefore not only forms a mechanically robust layer but also presents a challenge in designing drugs with chemical properties that can negotiate their way into and through these contrasting hydrophobic and hydrophilic environments to reach the lower region of the epidermis. The epidermis consists of living skin cells but has no blood vessels for the drug to diffuse into, so instead the drug must penetrate further to the dermis where it can finally enter the bloodstream or the subcutaneous layers.

Routes for drugs through the skin

Most transdermal drugs are designed so that they diffuse through the skin in a passive fashion. The routes for drug can be through the skin cells (transcellular), around them (intercellular) or using the skin components hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous glands (produce lipids) to bypass the stratum corneum (so-called ‘appendageal’ routes).

Transcellular route: Drugs pass through the corneocytes of the stratum corneum rather than the lipid ‘mortar’ that surrounds them (figure 2). However, the drug has to exit the cell to enter the next corneocyte and therefore through the skin. It means that it has to encounter the external hydrophobic environment between the cells multiple times as it moves through the alternating cell and lipid layers of the epidermis. Drugs therefore have to have balanced hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties to enable this to happen.

Figure 2 – Path of molecules through (A) the stratum corneum for the transcellular route (Note: the drug has to enter and exit the aqueous environment of the cells into the surrounding lipid matrix requiring an ability to be soluble in both); (B) Intercellular route (Note: the tortuous path for molecules passing through the stratum corneum via this route which delays diffusion.

Intercellular route: The drug predominantly diffuses through the lipid rich ‘mortar’ around the corneocytes of the epidermis. This lipid matrix can form a continuous route through the epidermis (avoiding entering the cells), but this route has been suggested to be less efficient because it increases the distance 50-fold3 compared to the direct route through the stratum corneum due to the interdigitating brick and mortar arrangement (figure 2). Again, the chemical formulation used to carry the drug is important and drugs that more readily dissolve in lipids benefit from this route.

Appendageal route: The hair, sweat glands and sebaceous glands provide a direct channel to the deep layers of the skin circumventing the hazardous barriers of the epidermis and dermis. The main challenge for this relatively easy route is that the amount of drug that can be taken up is limited by the density of hair follicles and sweat glands, although in haired animals, such as the horse, the density can be as high as 1-5% of the skin surface area. Furthermore, sweat from an active sweat gland would be travelling against the direction of drug flow, washing out the drug and its carrier and severely limit drug uptake. It is likely that all skin applications use this appendageal route as it’s unavoidable but probably more efficient for drugs that are large molecules.

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